• Cover (1)
• Handbook of Force Transducers (3)
• ISBN 9783642182952 (4)
• ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (8)
• IN LIEU OF PREFACE (10)
• CONTENTS (14)
• PART I: PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF FORCE MEASUREMENT (32)
  • 1 INTRODUCTION TO FORCE MEASUREMENT (34)
    • VARIOUS APPROACHES TO FORCE TRANSDUCTION (34)
    • NEWTON -- MEASUREMENT UNIT OF FORCE (37)
    • FORCE TRANSDUCERS OTHER THAN ELECTRICAL (41)
    • TERMINOLOGY: SENSORS OR TRANSDUCERS? (44)
    • FORCE MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS (47)
    • REFERENCES (51)
  • 2 ELECTRICAL METHODS OF FORCE MEASUREMENT (54)
    • ENERGETICAL ASPECTS IN FORCE TRANSDUCTION (55)
    • EXAMPLES OF FORCE MEASUREMENT IN THERMAL PROCESSES (58)
    • TYPICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR FORCE TRANSDUCERS (60)
    • FORCE TRANSDUCERS (FTs) CLASSIFICATIONS (61)
      • First attempts of force transducers systematization (61)
      • German FT classifications (63)
      • Dutch FT classifications (65)
      • English FT classifications (66)
    • NONCONVENTIONAL TYPES OF FORCE TRANSDUCERS (68)
      • Electrodynamic force transducers (68)
      • Galvanomagnetic force transducers (based on Hall effect) (68)
      • Acoustic force transducers (SAWs) (69)
      • Optical devices for force measurements (71)
    • AN ENLARGED CLASSIFICATION OF FORCE TRANSDUCERS (71)
    • REFERENCES (75)
  • 3 RESISTIVE FORCE TRANSDUCERS (80)
    • RESISTIVE FORCE TRANSDUCERS TYPES (81)
    • POTENTIOMETERS (83)
    • PRETENSIONED WIRES (84)
    • STRAIN GAUGES (85)
    • PIEZORESISTIVE SENSORS (87)
      • Silicon devices (88)
      • Carbon film coatings and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) (90)
    • FORCE SENSING RESISTORS (FSRs) (93)
    • FORCE SENSING RESISTIVE NETWORKS (96)
    • REFERENCES (99)
  • 4 INDUCTIVE FORCE TRANSDUCERS (104)
    • LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) (105)
    • VARIABLE RELUCTANCE TRANSDUCERS (109)
    • MUTUAL INDUCTANCE VARIATION FORCE TRANSDUCERS (110)
    • INDUCTIVE EDDY CURRENT TRANSDUCER (112)
    • BIPARAMETRIC INDUCTIVE FORCE TRANSDUCERS (112)
      • Biparametric LR (112)
      • Biparametric LC (113)
    • REFERENCES (116)
  • 5 CAPACITIVE FORCE TRANSDUCERS (118)
    • CAPACITIVE FORCE TRANSDUCERS CLASSIFICATION (118)
    • CAPACITIVE FORCE TRANSDUCERS (CFTs) WITH PLATES (119)
      • CFT with variable thickness of the dielectric pad (119)
      • CFT with variable distance between plates (121)
      • CFT with plates arranged under a certain angle (122)
    • MULTIPLE PLATES CAPACITIVE FORCE TRANSDUCERS (123)
    • INTERDIGITATED AND MATRIX OF CAPACITIVE SENSORS (125)
    • CYLINDRICAL CAPACITIVE FORCE TRANSDUCERS (128)
    • APPLICATIONS BASED ON ELECTROSTATIC FORCES (131)
      • Electrostatic force balances (131)
      • Other applications of electrostatic forces for the measurement of mechanical quantities (133)
    • ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS FOR CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS (134)
    • REFERENCES (136)
  • 6 PIEZOELECTRIC FORCE TRANSDUCERS (PZFTs) (140)
    • PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS (141)
      • Quartz crystals (141)
      • Sensors with organic polymers (142)
      • Solid state devices (144)
    • UNIDIRECTIONAL PIEZOELECTRIC FORCE TRANSDUCERS (145)
    • TRIDIRECTIONAL PIEZOELECTRIC FORCE TRANSDUCERS (148)
    • PIEZOELECTRIC BIMORPH AS FORCE TRANSDUCER (151)
    • ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS FOR PIEZO FORCE TRANSDUCERS (154)
    • COMPLEX APPLICATIONS WITH PIEZOELECTRIC DEVICES (156)
    • REFERENCES (157)
  • 7 ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE TRANSDUCERS (162)
    • CLASSIFICATION (162)
    • MAGNETORESISTIVE FORCE TRANSDUCERS (166)
    • FORCE MEASUREMENTS IN MAGNETIC FIELD (169)
      • Resistive force transducers in magnetic field (170)
      • Capacitive force transducers in magnetic field (171)
      • Pressure transducers based on magnetic higher-order harmonic fields (172)
    • ELECTROMAGNETIC WEIGHING BY FORCE COMPENSATION (173)
    • ELECTROMAGNETIC DEVICES FOR SMALL FORCES (175)
      • Electromagnetic probes for micro- and nano-force measurements (175)
      • Magnetic flux quantum as a sub-pico-newton weight (177)
      • Casimir forces and levitation pressures measurement (179)
    • REFERENCES (180)
  • 8 ELECTRODYNAMIC FORCE TRANSDUCERS (184)
    • ELECTRODYNAMIC FORCE COMPENSATION PRINCIPLE (186)
    • LOAD CELLS WITH ELECTRODYNAMIC FEEDBACK (187)
    • ELECTRODYNAMIC FORCE COMPENSATION BALANCES (188)
      • Hydrodynamic gravimetric balance (188)
      • Electrodynamic vacuum microbalance (189)
      • Electrodynamic devices for small particles experiments (190)
    • MICROMECHANICAL TESTERS WITH MOVING COILS (191)
    • MULTIFUNCTIONAL TRANSDUCERS WITH MOVING COILS (192)
    • REFERENCES (194)
  • 9 MAGNETOELASTIC FORCE TRANSDUCERS (196)
    • THE MAGNETOSTRICTIVE PRINCIPLE (197)
    • CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETOELASTIC FTs (199)
    • AXIAL MAGNETOELASTIC FORCE TRANSDUCERS (201)
      • Magnetostrictive strips and bars (201)
      • Magnetostrictive amorphous wires (203)
    • FRAME-SHAPED MAGNETOELASTIC FORCE TRANSDUCERS (204)
    • TUBULAR MAGNETOELASTIC FORCE TRANSDUCERS (205)
    • CIRCULAR MAGNETOELASTIC FORCE TRANSDUCERS (207)
    • BLOCK-SHAPED MAGNETOELASTIC FORCE TRANSDUCERS (209)
    • MAGNETOELASTIC SHAFTS FOR TORQUE TRANSDUCERS (211)
    • MAGNETOELASTIC FTs ELECTRONIC CIRCUITRY (212)
    • REFERENCES (214)
  • 10 GALVANOMAGNETIC FORCE TRANSDUCERS (216)
    • HALL EFFECT AND ITS APPLICATIONS (217)
    • FORCE TRANSDUCERS BASED ON THE HALL EFFECT (220)
    • HALL DEVICES FOR OTHER MECHANICAL QUANTITIES (222)
      • Displacement and position measurements using Hall sensors (222)
      • Weighing based on Hall devices (223)
      • Pressure and flow measurements by means of Hall sensors (224)
      • Shock measurements using Hall devices (225)
      • Penetration velocity and rotational speed measured with Hall sensors (226)
    • GALVANOMAGNETIC FTs IN COMPLEX MEASUREMENT CHAINS (227)
      • Combined measurands in galvanomagnetic force transducers (227)
      • Triaxial galvanomagnetic force transducers (229)
    • OTHER ELECTROMAGNETIC PRINCIPLES IN FORCE MEASUREMENT (230)
    • REFERENCES (231)
  • 11 VIBRATING-WIRE FORCE TRANSDUCERS (234)
    • VIBRATING WIRE AS FORCE MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE (234)
    • VWFTs’ STRUCTURES AND CHARACTERISTICS (237)
    • ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS FOR VWTs (240)
      • Vibrating-wire excitation methods (240)
      • Measuring circuits for vibrating-wire transducers (242)
      • Digital weighing based on vibrating-wire transducers (242)
      • Virtual musical instruments investigated by means of VWFTs (243)
    • DIFFERENT TYPES OF VIBRATING-WIRE TRANSDUCERS (244)
    • VWTs’ APPLICATIONS FOR OTHER PHYSICAL QUANTITIES (248)
      • Viscometers and densimeters (248)
      • “Piezometers” (for underground water pressure) (250)
      • Tiltmeters / inclinometers and slope indicators (251)
    • VWTs’ PROGRESS AND THEIR EXTENDED UTILIZATION (251)
    • REFERENCES (254)
  • 12 RESONATOR FORCE TRANSDUCERS (258)
    • RESONATOR PRINCIPLE IN FORCE MEASUREMENT (259)
    • MATERIALS FOR RESONATORS AND THEIR Q-FACTORS (261)
      • Quartz resonators for force transducers (262)
      • Silicon resonators for force transducers (263)
    • VARIOUS SHAPES OF RESONATORS (266)
      • Resonating beams for force transducers (266)
      • Resonating diaphragms / membranes for force / pressure transducers (268)
      • Resonating tubes for force transducers (269)
    • SINGLE BEAM (MICRO)RESONATORS (269)
    • DOUBLE BEAM (MICRO)RESONATORS (271)
      • Classical double-ended tuning forks (DETFs) (271)
      • Modern solutions for DETF resonators (273)
    • METALLIC TRIPLE BEAM RESONATORS (MTBRs) (275)
      • Force transducers with MTBRs (275)
      • Torque transducers with metallic triple-beam resonators (277)
    • REFERENCES (278)
  • 13 ACOUSTIC FORCE TRANSDUCERS (282)
    • INTERDIGITAL TRANSDUCERS (IDTs) (283)
    • ACOUSTIC EMISSION AND WAVEGUIDES (285)
      • Acoustic emission applications (285)
      • Acoustic waveguides applications (286)
    • ULTRASOUND FORCE TRANSDUCERS (287)
      • Industrial applications of ultrasound force transducers (287)
      • Ultrasound force transducers for food and farmacology (290)
      • Medical applications of ultrasound force transducers (291)
    • ACOUSTIC RADIATION FORCE TRANSDUCERS (292)
      • Acoustic radiation force transducers in medicine (292)
      • Acoustic radiation force transducers in metrology (293)
    • SURFACE ACOUSTIC WAVE (SAW) TRANSDUCERS (295)
      • SAW force transducers (296)
      • SAW pressure transducers (298)
      • SAW fluidic transducers (298)
    • SAW ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS (299)
    • REFERENCES (303)
  • 14 GYROSCOPIC FORCE TRANSDUCERS (306)
    • THE GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLE IN FORCE MEASUREMENT (306)
    • CONVENTIONAL GYROSCOPIC FORCE TRANSDUCERS (308)
    • TYPES OF MICRO-GYROSCOPIC FORCE TRANSDUCERS (310)
      • Inertial gyroscopes (310)
      • Piezoelectric gyroscopes (312)
      • Resonator / vibrating gyroscopes (313)
      • Acoustic (and SAW) gyroscopes (315)
      • Coriolis force transducers in medical applications (316)
    • OPTICAL GYROSCOPES (317)
      • Fiber optic gyroscopes (FOGs) (317)
      • Laser gyroscopes (319)
      • MOEMS (micro-opto-electro-mechanical system) gyroscope (319)
    • A TOPICAL REVIEW OF GYROSCOPES (319)
    • REFERENCES (321)
  • 15 FORCE BALANCE TECHNIQUES (324)
    • FORCE BALANCE PRINCIPLE APPLIED TO TRANSDUCERS (325)
    • ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE COMPENSATION (EMFC) (328)
    • ELECTROSTATIC FORCE COMPENSATION (330)
    • REFERENCES (335)
  • 16 MIXED METHODS IN FORCE MEASUREMENTS (338)
    • FORCE TRANSDUCERS USING ADVANCED ELECTRONICS (339)
    • CANTILEVER BEAMS FOR VARIOUS FORCE TRANSDUCERS (341)
    • CNTs FOR MEASURING MECHANICAL QUANTITIES (343)
    • COMBINED METHODS OF FORCE TRANSDUCTION (347)
      • Force transducers in medical instruments (347)
      • EMAT (electro-magnetic acoustic transducer) and Lorentz force (349)
      • Multitransducer equipment (351)
      • Force transducers involving optical techniques (352)
    • REFERENCES (355)
• PART II FORCE TRANSDUCERS COMPONENTS (360)
  • 17 THE FORCE MEASUREMENT CHAIN (362)
    • FORCE MEASUREMENT CHAIN COMPONENTS (362)
    • STRAIN GAUGE SENSING (365)
    • STRAIN GAUGES SIGNAL CONDITIONING (368)
    • STRAIN GAUGES SIGNAL PROCESSING (371)
    • DATA PRESENTATION FOR FORCE TRANSDUCERS (374)
    • REFERENCES (376)
  • 18 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE – THE BASIC CIRCUIT FOR STRAIN GAUGE FORCE TRANSDUCERS (378)
    • WHEATSTONE BRIDGE – GENERAL PRESENTATION (378)
    • WHEATSTONE BRIDGE – FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES (379)
    • BRIDGE COMPENSATION AND ADJUSTING RESISTORS (381)
    • SUPPLY POSSIBILITIES FOR WHEATSTONE BRIDGES (383)
    • DIFFERENT APPLICATIONS WITH MEASURING BRIDGES (384)
    • FURTHER CONNECTIONS FOR WHEATSTONE BRIDGES (387)
    • REFERENCES (389)
  • 19 STRAIN GAUGES ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS (392)
    • SIGNAL CONDITIONING FOR FORCE TRANSDUCERS (392)
    • SIGNAL CONDITIONERS (393)
      • Pre- and post-conditioning (393)
      • High-gain signal conditioning (394)
    • ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTERS (396)
      • Different conversions to frequency (396)
      • Resistance-to-time converter (396)
      • Sigma-Delta converter (397)
    • BRIDGE OSCILLATORS (398)
      • Wien bridge based oscillator (398)
      • Wheatstone bridge based oscillator (399)
    • AC GENERATORS (400)
      • Sine wave generator (400)
      • Saw-tooth wave generator (400)
      • Rectangular wave generator (401)
    • STRAIN GAUGED FORCE TRANSDUCERS CONNECTED TO PC (402)
      • Direct resistance change measurement (402)
      • Strain gauge bridge signal processing (402)
    • REFERENCES (404)
  • 20 CLASSIFICATION OF ELASTIC ELEMENTS (406)
    • ELASTIC ELEMENTS LOADING MODES (406)
    • EXAMPLES OF ELASTIC ELEMENTS CLASSIFICATIONS (409)
    • COMPREHENSIVE CLASSIFICATION OF ELASTIC ELEMENTS (412)
    • REFERENCES (418)
  • 21 STRETCHED / COMPRESSED COLUMNS (420)
    • CLASSICAL COLUMNS (420)
    • OPTIMIZED COLUMNS (425)
    • INCREASING SENSITIVITY FOR COLUMNAR TRANSDUCERS (425)
    • COMPLEX STRUCTURES COMPOSED BY BARS / COLUMNS (426)
    • DYNAMIC TESTING FOR CYLINDRICAL TRANSDUCERS (427)
    • REFERENCES (428)
  • 22 STRETCHED / COMPRESSED TUBES (430)
    • CLASSICAL TUBES (430)
    • CONCENTRIC TUBES (434)
    • PROFILED TUBES (435)
    • TUBES WITH HOLES OR SLOTS (439)
    • TUBULAR STRUCTURES UNDER COMPLEX LOADING (441)
    • REFERENCES (442)
  • 23 BENT LAMELLA (CANTILEVER BEAMS) (446)
    • VARIOUS APPLICATIONS WITH CANTILEVER BEAMS (446)
    • CANTILEVER BEAMS FOR LOWER FORCES (450)
    • (BIO)CHEMICAL CANTILEVERS (455)
    • SEVERAL SHAPES OF CANTILEVER BEAMS (459)
    • CANTILEVER BEAMS IN MULTICOMPONENT FTs (462)
    • REFERENCES (465)
  • 24 BENT AND/OR TORSION SHAFTS (468)
    • BENDING OF CANTILEVER TUBE OR CYLINDER (468)
    • ROTATING SHAFTS (470)
    • COMPLEX LOADED SHAFTS (472)
    • REFERENCES (474)
  • 25 MIDDLE BENT BARS WITH FIXED ENDS (476)
    • EXAMPLES OF MIDDLE BENT BARS WITH FIXED ENDS (476)
    • SLOTTED STRUCTURES FOR MIDDLE BENT BARS WITH FIXED ENDS (479)
    • DYNAMIC APPLICATIONS OF DOUBLE ENDED BEAMS (481)
    • VARIOUS MODELS OF FOUR-SPOKE WHEELS (483)
    • REFERENCES (486)
  • 26 SHEARING STRAINED ELASTIC ELEMENTS (488)
    • ‘I’-PROFILES SUBJECTED TO SHEARING (490)
    • LOAD MEASURING PINS / BOLTS (491)
    • HOLLOW DISCS / WHEELS (493)
    • S (Z) SHAPED ELASTIC ELEMENTS (495)
    • HELIX LOAD CELLS (496)
    • REFERENCES (497)
  • 27 BENT YOKES AND FRAMES (500)
    • VARIOUS SHAPES OF BENT YOKES AND FRAMES (502)
    • FORCE--MEASURING CLAMPS (505)
    • REFERENCES (506)
  • 28 BENT RINGS AND “GLASSES” (508)
    • VARIOUS SHAPES OF BENT RINGS (508)
      • Circular rings (508)
      • “Square” rings (511)
      • Hexagonal rings (512)
      • Octagonal rings (512)
      • Other shapes of bent rings (513)
    • ‘‘GLASSES’’-SHAPED ELASTIC STRUCTURES (515)
    • MULTIPLE “GLASSES”-SHAPED ELASTIC ELEMENTS (521)
    • REFERENCES (522)
  • 29 BENT MEMBRANES (526)
    • VARIOUS TYPES OF BENT MEMBRANES (526)
    • CIRCULAR MEMBRANES (531)
    • SQUARE MEMBRANES (536)
    • MEMBRANES WITH VARIOUS SHAPES OF APERTURES (540)
    • OTHER SHAPES OF MEMBRANES (542)
    • REFERENCES (545)
  • 30 COMPLEX LOADED TORUS (548)
    • TORUS AS ELASTIC ELEMENT FOR FORCE TRANSDUCERS (548)
    • TOROIDAL ELASTIC ELEMENTS IN SPECIAL APPLICATIONS (551)
    • REFERENCES (553)
  • 31 AXISYMMETRIC ELASTIC ELEMENTS (554)
    • VARIOUS AXISYMMETRIC EEs FOR FORCE TRANSDUCERS (554)
    • AXISYMMETRICAL EEs FOR VERY LARGE FORCE TRANSDUCERS (559)
    • N-SHAPED AXISYMMETRIC ELASTIC ELEMENTS (565)
    • REFERENCES (568)
  • 32 VOLUMETRIC ELASTIC ELEMENTS (570)
    • SPHERES (570)
    • CUBES (573)
      • Full cubes (573)
      • Cubic blocks with slots (574)
    • COMPLEX BODIES WITH OBLIQUE SLOTS (578)
    • REFERENCES (579)
  • 33 COMPLEX, COMPOSED AND COMBINED ELASTIC STRUCTURES (580)
    • COMPLEX ELASTIC STRUCTURES (581)
      • Plane complex structures (581)
      • Spatial complex structures (583)
    • COMPOSED ELASTIC STRUCTURES (585)
    • COMBINED ELASTIC STRUCTURES (589)
      • Plane combinations of elastic elements (589)
      • Axisymmetric combinations of elastic elements (590)
      • Spatial combinations of elastic elements (591)
    • REFERENCES (593)
  • 34 ELASTIC ELEMENTS SELECTION CRITERIA (594)
    • ELASTIC ELEMENTS (EEs) EVALUATION CRITERIA (596)
    • ELASTIC ELEMENTS COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS (597)
    • EE SELECTION FOR SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS (600)
      • From single- to multi-component force transducers (600)
      • Force transducers in Mechatronics (601)
      • Elastic elements for very large forces (602)
    • ELASTIC ELEMENTS AUTOMATIC SELECTION (603)
    • REFERENCES (605)
  • 35 DIGITAL AND INTELLIGENT FORCE TRANSDUCERS (608)
    • EVOLUTION FROM ANALOG TO DIGITAL (608)
    • AUTOMATIC RECOGNITION OF FORCE TRANSDUCERS (610)
    • FORCE TRANSDUCERS IN DYNAMIC REGIME (612)
    • INTELLIGENT (SMART) FORCE TRANSDUCERS (613)
    • FURTHER PROSPECTS: MATERIALS, TECHNOLOGIES, IDEAS (614)
      • Smart materials and structures (614)
      • Intelligent design and smart technology (615)
    • UPDATED FORCE TRANSDUCERS + DATA COMMUNICATION (616)
      • Dual output force transducers (616)
      • Data display and communication (618)
    • REFERENCES (620)
• Annex 1. Rules for strain gauges placement on the elastic elements of force transducers (622)
• Annex 2. The Newton’s Apple Tree in Korea (626)
• Index (628)