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Encyclopedia of applied psychology
اطلاعات کتابشناختی
Encyclopedia of applied psychology
Author :
Publisher :
Elsevier / Academic Press,
سال انتشار :
2004
موضوع ها :
Psychology, Applied -- Encyclopedias. Psychology, Applied -- Encyclopedias.
شماره راهنما :
BF 636 .E52 2004
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ترتيب
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فهرست مطالب
Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology
(1)
Editor-in-Chief, Page i
(2)
Editorial Advisors, Page iii
(3)
Section Editors, Page iv
(4)
Preface, Page xxi
(5)
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Section - A
(7)
Academic Failure, Prevention of, Pages 1-7, Mary Ann Rafoth
(7)
Glossary
(7)
Defining Academic Failure
(8)
Causes of Academic Failure
(8)
School Readiness
(8)
Academic, Instructional, and Motivational Reasons
(9)
Physiological, Neurological, and Cognitive Reasons
(10)
Preventing Early School Failure
(10)
Early Intervention Programs
(10)
Preventing School Failure in the Elementary Grades
(11)
Preventing Failure in the Intermediate Grades and Middle School
(12)
Preventing Academic Failure in High School
(12)
Conclusion
(12)
See Also the Following Articles
(13)
Further Reading
(13)
Academic Interventions, Pages 9-19, Natalie Rathvon
(14)
Glossary
(14)
Overview
(14)
Types of Academic Problems
(15)
Intervention Delivery Systems
(15)
Intervention Assistance Programs
(15)
Guidelines for Selecting, Implementing, and Evaluating Academic Interventions
(15)
Selecting Academic Interventions
(15)
Implementing Academic Interventions
(18)
Evaluating Academic Interventions
(20)
Curriculum-Based Assessment
(20)
Academic Intervention Targets
(21)
Interventions Targeting Academic Productivity
(21)
Self-Management
(21)
Classwide Peer Tutoring
(21)
Interventions Targeting Academic Achievement
(21)
Interventions to Improve Reading Performance
(21)
Listening Previewing
(22)
Collaborative Strategic Reading
(22)
Interventions to Improve Mathematics Performance
(22)
Cover-Copy-Compare
(22)
Reciprocal Peer Tutoring
(22)
Interventions to Improve Written Language Performance
(23)
Self-Regulated Strategy Development in Writing
(23)
Self-Recording of Writing Productivity
(23)
Interventions to Enhance Academic Enablers
(23)
Public Posting
(23)
School-Home Notes
(23)
Summary and Future Directions
(24)
See Also the Following Articles
(24)
Further Reading
(24)
Accidents in Transportation, Pages 21-25, Sidney Dekker
(25)
Glossary
(25)
Why Is It Important to Understand Accidents?
(25)
Applied Psychology and Accidents
(26)
Why Do Accidents Happen?
(27)
Regulation of Transportation Systems and Incident Reporting
(28)
Interventions, New Technology, and Future Developments
(28)
See Also the Following Articles
(29)
Further Reading
(29)
Acculturation, Pages 27-34, J. W. Berry
(30)
Glossary
(30)
Acculturation Concept
(31)
Acculturation Contexts
(32)
Acculturation Strategies
(33)
Acculturative Stress
(34)
Adaptation
(35)
Applications
(36)
See Also the Following Articles
(36)
Further Reading
(36)
Achievement Motivation in Academics, Pages 35-40, Dale H. Schunk
(38)
Glossary
(38)
Introduction
(38)
Background
(39)
Current Perspectives
(39)
Promoting Achievement Motivation
(42)
See Also the Following Articles
(43)
Further Reading
(43)
Achievement Tests, Pages 41-46, Gregory J. Cizek
(44)
Glossary
(44)
Introduction
(45)
Definitions and Examples
(45)
Types of Achievement Tests
(46)
Achievement Test Construction
(47)
Evaluating Achievement Tests
(47)
See Also the Following Articles
(49)
Further Reading
(49)
Advertising and Culture, Pages 47-51, Sharon Shavitt and Jing Zhang
(50)
Glossary
(50)
Advertising and Advertising Appeals
(50)
Approaches to Culture in the Context of Advertising and Consumer Behavior
(50)
Cultural Differences at the National Level
(51)
Individualism and Collectivism
(51)
Horizontal and Vertical Cultural Orientations
(51)
Self-Construal: Cultural Differences at the Individual Level
(52)
Chronic Self-Construal
(52)
Salient Self-Construal
(52)
Culture and Cognitive Processing of Advertising Appeals
(53)
Factors That Covary with Culture
(53)
Conclusions
(54)
See Also the Following Articles
(54)
Further Reading
(54)
Advertising Psychology, Pages 53-64, Patrick T. Vargas and Sukki Yoon
(55)
Glossary
(55)
Introduction
(55)
The Psychological Study of Advertising
(56)
Historical Perspectives
(56)
Contemporary Perspectives
(56)
Strong and Weak Models of Advertising Effects
(57)
Perception
(57)
Exposure
(57)
Attention
(58)
Interpretation
(58)
Memory and Learning
(59)
Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
(59)
Short- and Long-Term Memory
(59)
Processing Pictures Versus Text
(60)
Repetition and Learning
(60)
Low- and High-Involvement Learning
(60)
Attitudes
(61)
The Structure of Attitudes
(61)
Functions of Attitudes
(63)
Attitude-Behavior Relations
(64)
Persuasion
(64)
Message Learning Approach
(65)
Dual-Process Theories
(65)
See Also the Following Articles
(66)
Further Reading
(66)
Affirmative Action, Pages 65-77, David A. Kravitz
(67)
Glossary
(67)
What Is Affirmative Action?
(68)
Background
(68)
Definitions
(68)
Conceptual Definition
(68)
Legal Definitions
(68)
Operational Definitions
(69)
Public Beliefs
(69)
Economic Effects of Affirmative Action
(69)
Target Groups
(69)
Organizations
(70)
Affirmative Action and Stigmatization
(70)
Stigmatization by Others
(71)
Target Group Members' Anticipation of Stigmatization
(71)
Self-Stigmatization by Target Group Members
(72)
Summary
(72)
Attitudes toward Affirmative Action
(72)
Structural Factors
(73)
Affirmative Action Plan Strength
(73)
Identity of Target Group
(73)
Justification
(73)
Individual Difference Variables
(73)
Demographic Variables
(74)
Racioethnicity
(74)
Gender
(74)
Education
(74)
Opinion Variables
(74)
Prejudice
(75)
Political Orientation
(75)
Social Dominance Theory
(76)
Comparison among Theories
(76)
Beliefs About the Extent of Discrimination
(77)
Psychological Mediators
(77)
Self-Interest (Personal and Collective)
(77)
Perceived Fairness
(78)
Complications and Limitations
(78)
Conclusions
(78)
Acknowledgments
(79)
See Also the Following Articles
(79)
Further Reading
(79)
Age-Related Issues among Minority Populations, Pages 79-90, Edna E. Brown and James S. Jackson
(80)
Glossary
(80)
Introduction
(81)
The Changing Nature of Aging in America
(81)
A Life Course Framework for Aging in Racial and Ethnic Groups
(82)
Resource Dependency: Work, Asset Accumulation, and Retirement
(82)
Socioeconomic Status
(82)
Health Morbidity and Mortality
(83)
Psychological Well-Being
(83)
Work and Retirement
(83)
Family and Social Support
(84)
Importance of Formal and Informal Care
(84)
Benefits of Support/Informal Care
(84)
Sources and Types of Informal Support/Care
(84)
Reciprocity
(85)
Formal Care
(85)
Receiving Care
(85)
Importance of Perceived Control to Physical and Mental Health Outcomes
(86)
Receiving Care, Sense of Control, and Psychological Well-Being
(87)
Caregivers
(87)
Burden, Stress, Depression as a Result of Providing Care
(87)
Care Recipients
(88)
Effects of Caregiving on Care Recipients’ Psychological Well-Being
(88)
Spouse Caregiver
(88)
Adult Children
(89)
Other Relatives, Friends, and Church Members
(89)
Racial and Ethnic Minority Elderly as a Resource
(89)
Implications
(90)
Conclusions
(90)
See Also the Following Articles
(91)
Further Reading
(91)
Aggression and Culture, Pages 91-98, Michael Harris Bond
(92)
Glossary
(92)
Culture and Aggression: Contexts for Exercising Coercive Control
(92)
Culture as Contexts for Influence
(93)
Holocultural Studies of Aggression
(94)
Waging War and Internal Political Violence
(94)
Homicide
(95)
Socictal Factors
(95)
Social Psychological Mechanisms
(95)
Culture and Studies of Aggression in Individuals
(97)
See Also the Following Articles
(99)
Further Reading
(99)
Aging and Competency, Pages 99-103, Jennifer Moye
(100)
Glossary
(100)
Clinical Versus Legal Competency
(101)
Competency Versus Capacity
(101)
Legal Frameworks for Aging and Competency
(101)
Decision-Making Abilities in Competency
(102)
Clinical Evaluations of Capacities
(102)
Competency and Older Adults
(102)
Competency Assessment
(102)
Ethical Issues
(102)
Consequences of Guardianship
(102)
Informed Consent
(103)
Individual and Cultural Differences
(103)
Categories of Capacities
(103)
Financial Management
(103)
Health Care
(104)
Independent Living
(104)
Transportation
(104)
See Also the Following Articles
(104)
Further Reading
(104)
Aging and Culture, Pages 105-110, Toni C. Antonucci and Hiroko Akiyama
(105)
Glossary
(105)
Introduction
(105)
Aging and Demographics
(106)
Aging, Culture, and Families
(106)
Cultural Diversity and Aging
(107)
Age, Culture, and Social Relations
(108)
Cultural Influences on the Health of Aging People
(108)
Summary and Conclusions
(109)
See Also the Following Articles
(109)
Further Reading
(109)
Aging, Cognition, and Medication Adherence, Pages 111-116, Odette N. Gould
(111)
Glossary
(111)
Extent and Cost of Medication Nonadherence in the Elderly
(111)
Types of Nonadherence
(112)
Adherence: A Complex Cognitive Task
(112)
Prospective Memory and Episodic Memory: Age-Related Changes and Effects on Adherence
(113)
Knowledge, Beliefs, and Communication: Age-Related Changes and Effects on Adherence
(113)
Measuring Adherence: A Difficult Challenge
(114)
Interventions: How Cognitive Psychology Can Help
(115)
See Also the Following Articles
(115)
Further Reading
(115)
Agreeableness, Pages 117-121, Brad E. Sheese and William G. Graziano
(117)
Glossary
(117)
Describing Agreeableness: What Is It?
(117)
External Correlates: What Is Agreeableness Related To?
(118)
Etiology/Antecedents: Where Does Agreeableness Come From?
(119)
Conclusion
(120)
See Also the Following Articles
(121)
Further Reading
(121)
Alcohol Dependence, Pages 123-127, Norman S. Miller
(122)
Glossary
(122)
Who Becomes Alcoholic?
(122)
Other Drug Use Associated with Alcohol Dependence
(123)
Dependence Syndrome and Screening Instruments
(123)
Syndromes
(123)
The CAGE and MAST
(124)
Alcoholism Treatment: Pharmacological Approaches
(124)
Psychiatric and Medical Complications
(124)
Alcoholism Treatment: Behavioral Approaches
(125)
Long-Term Recovery from Alcoholism
(125)
Beneficial Versus Harmful Effects of Alcohol
(126)
Prevention of Alcohol Use and Problems
(126)
See Also the Following Articles
(126)
Further Reading
(126)
Amnesia, Pages 129-138, Ginette Lafleche and Mieke Verfaellie
(127)
Glossary
(127)
Introduction
(127)
The Contribution of Patient H.M.
(128)
Impaired Memory in Amnesia: Declarative Memory
(129)
Retrograde Amnesia
(129)
Anterograde Amnesia
(129)
Preserved Aspects of Memory in Amnesia: Nondeclarative Memory
(130)
Procedural Memory
(130)
Repetition Priming
(130)
Amnesic Syndromes
(131)
Herpes Simplex Encephalitis
(131)
Anoxia
(131)
Anterior Communicating Artery Aneurysm
(132)
Stroke
(132)
Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
(133)
Neuropathology of Amnesia
(133)
Declarative Memory
(133)
Nondeclarative Memory
(134)
Approaches to Treatment of Amnesic Disorders
(134)
See Also the Following Articles
(136)
Further Reading
(136)
Anxiety and Optimal Athletic Performance, Pages 139-144, John S. Raglin
(137)
Glossary
(137)
Introduction
(137)
Assessment of Anxiety
(138)
Traditional Theoretical Perspectives on the Anxiety-Performance Relationship
(138)
Sport Modifications
(139)
Sport-Specific Theories of Anxiety and Performance
(139)
The IZOF Model
(139)
Determining Optimal Anxiety
(140)
Interindividual Variability in Optimal Anxiety
(140)
Predicting Precompetition Anxiety
(141)
Impact of Optimal Anxiety on Performance
(141)
Other Ideographic Theories
(142)
Summary
(142)
See Also the Following Articles
(142)
Further Reading
(142)
Anxiety Disorders in Late Life, Pages 145-154, Cheryl N. Carmin, Jan Mohlman and Amy Buckley
(143)
Glossary
(143)
Epidemiology of Anxiety Disorders in Older Adults
(143)
General Prevalence Data
(144)
Epidemiology of Individual Anxiety Disorders
(144)
Reliability of Epidemiological Studies
(144)
Comorbidity
(144)
Assessment and Treatment of Anxiety Disorders
(145)
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
(145)
Assessment
(145)
Psychosocial Treatment of Late-Life Generalized Anxiety Disorder
(146)
Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia
(146)
Assessment
(146)
Psychosocial Treatment of Late-Life Panic Disorder
(146)
Social Anxiety Disorder
(147)
Assessment
(147)
Treatment
(147)
Assessment and Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
(147)
Assessment
(148)
Treatment
(148)
Assessment and Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
(148)
Assessment
(149)
Treatment
(149)
Assessment and Treatment of Specific Phobias
(149)
Assessment
(149)
Treatment
(149)
Issues Related to Anxiety Secondary to a Medical Condition
(149)
Conclusions
(150)
See Also the Following Articles
(150)
Further Reading
(150)
Arousal in Sport, Pages 155-161, Leonard D. Zaichkowsky and Adam H. Naylor
(153)
Glossary
(153)
Introduction
(153)
Conceptual Confusion Surrounding Arousal
(154)
Neuropsychology of Arousal
(154)
Arousal Theories
(154)
Drive Theory
(154)
Inverted-U Hypothesis
(155)
Reversal Theory
(156)
Newer Theories
(156)
Effects of Arousal on Athletic Performance
(157)
Managing Arousal Levels
(158)
Cognitive Interventions
(158)
Behavioral Interventions
(158)
Cognitive-Behavioral Interventions
(158)
See Also the Following Articles
(158)
Further Reading
(158)
Assessment and Evaluation, Overview, Pages 163-176, Rocío Fernández-Ballesteros
(160)
Glossary
(160)
Introduction
(160)
Concept
(160)
Brief History
(161)
Objectives and Contexts
(161)
Theoretical Perspectives
(161)
Trait
(163)
Medical
(163)
Psychodynamic
(164)
Behavioral
(165)
Cognitive
(165)
Constructivist
(165)
Methods and Techniques
(166)
Interview
(166)
Observational Methods
(167)
Self-reports
(167)
Projective Techniques
(169)
The Process of Assessment, Treatment, and Evaluation
(169)
Conclusions
(170)
See Also the Following Articles
(172)
Further Reading
(172)
Assessment in Sport Psychology, Pages 177-190, Marc-Simon Sagal, Paul Thomas Sagal and Geoffrey E. Miller
(174)
Glossary
(174)
Introduction
(174)
Role of Assessment
(175)
Methods of Assessment
(175)
Interviews
(175)
Behavioral Observation
(176)
Psychological Testing, Surveys, and Inventories
(177)
Third-Party Anecdotal Data Collection
(177)
Common Distinctions
(177)
Formal Assessment Versus Informal Assessment
(177)
Subjective Assessment Versus Objective Assessment
(178)
State Versus Trait
(178)
Sport-Specific Measures Versus General Measures
(178)
History and Current Assessment Tools (North American)
(178)
List and Description of Frequently Used Tests
(179)
16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)
(179)
Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (ACSI-28)
(180)
Athletic Motivation Inventory (AMI)
(180)
Competition Reflections
(180)
Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI-2)
(181)
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
(181)
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2)
(181)
Profile of Mood States (POMS)
(181)
Psychological Skills Inventory for Sports (PSIS)
(181)
Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT)
(181)
State-Trait Anxiety Inventories (STAI)
(182)
The Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS) Inventory
(182)
Troutwine Athletic Profile (TAP)
(182)
Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS)
(182)
Winning Profile Athlete Inventory (WPAI)
(182)
Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT)
(182)
Formal Assessment Guidelines and Ethical Considerations
(183)
Test Validity
(183)
Confidentiality
(183)
Response Sets and Styles
(183)
Consensual Validation
(184)
Future Directions
(184)
See Also the Following Articles
(187)
Further Reading
(187)
Attachment, Pages 191-202, Ronit Roth-Hanania and Maayan Davidov
(188)
Glossary
(188)
Introduction
(189)
History
(189)
John Bowlby (1907-1990)
(189)
Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999)
(190)
Measurement
(190)
Assessing Infant Attachment
(190)
The Strange Situation
(190)
Procedure
(190)
Attachment Patterns
(191)
Validity
(191)
The Attachment Q-Sort
(191)
Measuring Attachment During Childhood
(192)
Assessing Adult Attachment Representations
(192)
The Antecedents of Attachment Security
(193)
Caregiver Influences on Attachment Security
(193)
Parental Caregiving Behavior
(193)
Parental Attachment Representations
(194)
Genetic Transmission of Attachment
(194)
Child Influences on Attachment Security
(194)
Child Temperament
(194)
Attachment in Children with Special Needs
(195)
Attachment Throughout the Life Span: Stability and Change
(195)
Attachment and Subsequent Child Outcomes
(196)
Emotion Regulation
(196)
Prosocial Behavior and Interpersonal Relationships
(196)
Cognitive Development
(196)
Problem Behavior and Mental Health
(197)
Applied Aspects of Attachment
(197)
Interventions with Infants and Young Children
(197)
Enhancing Parental Sensitivity
(197)
Changing Internal Working Models
(198)
Policy
(198)
See Also the Following Articles
(198)
Further Reading
(199)
Attention, Pages 203-208, Amir Raz
(200)
Glossary
(200)
Historical Context
(200)
Gross Characteristics of Attention
(201)
Attention and Perception
(202)
Atypical Attention
(203)
Substrates of Attentional Networks
(203)
See Also the Following Articles
(205)
Further Reading
(205)
Attention and Concentration Training in Sport, Pages 209-214, Aidan Moran
(206)
Glossary
(206)
‘‘Attention’’ and ‘‘Concentration’’ in Sport
(207)
Training Attentional Skills in Athletes: Concentration Exercises and Techniques
(208)
Concentration Exercises
(208)
Concentration Techniques
(208)
Performance Goal Setting
(208)
Preperformance Routines
(209)
Trigger Words
(209)
Mental Practice
(210)
Unresolved Issues in Training Attentional Skills in Sport
(210)
New Directions in Research on Concentration Skills Training
(210)
See Also the Following Articles
(211)
Further Reading
(211)
Attention Deficit Disorders - School-Based Interventions, Pages 215-223, George J. DuPaul and Katy E. Tresco
(212)
Glossary
(212)
Description and Definition of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
(212)
Conceptual Foundations of School-Based Interventions
(213)
Linking Assessment Data to Intervention
(213)
Intervening at the Point of Performance
(213)
Individualizing Intervention Strategies
(214)
Combining Antecedent and Consequent Interventions
(214)
Combining Behavioral and Academic Interventions
(214)
Using Multiple Intervention Agents
(214)
Interventions for Elementary School-Aged Students
(215)
Teacher-Mediated Strategies
(215)
Peer-Mediated Interventions
(216)
Computer-Assisted Interventions
(216)
Parent-Mediated Interventions
(217)
Self-Mediated Interventions
(218)
Intervention Considerations for Secondary School-Aged Students
(218)
Conclusions and Future Considerations
(219)
See Also the Following Articles
(219)
Further Reading
(219)
Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorders (ADHD), Pages 225-231, Anne Teeter Ellison
(221)
Glossary
(221)
Core Characteristics of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
(221)
Associated Problems
(222)
ADHD with Other Disorders
(222)
Gender and Cultural Issues
(223)
Etiology of ADHD
(223)
Developmental Context for ADHD
(224)
ADHD During Early Childhood
(224)
ADHD During Middle Childhood
(224)
ADHD During Adolescence
(224)
ADHD During Adulthood
(225)
Evidence-Based Interventions for ADHD
(225)
Multimodal Treatment Regimens
(225)
Other Evidence-Based Interventions
(225)
Medication Monitoring and Adherence
(226)
Risk and Resiliency Factors that Affect ADHD
(226)
See Also the Following Articles
(227)
Further Reading
(227)
Attitude Measurement, Pages 233-243, David Trafimow
(228)
Glossary
(228)
Introduction
(229)
Two Meanings of Reliability
(229)
Two Meanings of Validity
(229)
The Historical Problem: Attitudes Did Not Predict Behaviors
(229)
Attitude Accessibility
(230)
Principle of Correspondence
(230)
Factor Analysis
(231)
Attitudes Toward Objects or Behaviors and Behavioral Categories
(231)
Attitude Specificity, Behavioral Intentions, and Behaviors
(232)
Open Attitude Measures
(232)
Implicit Attitude Measures
(233)
Direct and Indirect Attitude Measures
(234)
Distinctions That Are Important for Attitude Measurement
(235)
The Separate Measurement of Cognition and Affect
(235)
The Separate Measurement of Attitudes and Subjective Norms
(235)
Consumer Applications
(236)
Conclusion
(237)
See Also the Following Articles
(238)
Further Reading
(238)
Attitudes, Pages 245-249, George Y. Bizer
(239)
Glossary
(239)
Introduction
(239)
The Tripartite Model of Attitudes
(240)
Attitude Measurement
(241)
Attitude Strength
(241)
Attitude Change
(242)
Conclusion
(243)
See Also the Following Articles
(243)
Further Reading
(243)
Authoritarianism, Pages 251-255, Klaus Boehnke and Andreas Hadjar
(244)
Glossary
(244)
Authoritarianism: The Concept
(244)
Historical Background
(244)
Concept of the Authoritarian Personality
(245)
Criticism
(246)
Contemporary Developments of the Authoritarianism Concept
(246)
Similar Contemporary Concepts
(246)
Correlates of Authoritarianism
(247)
Antecedents
(247)
Class and Socioeconomic Status
(247)
Family Socialization
(247)
Cross-Cultural Differences
(247)
Consequences
(247)
Treatment Approaches
(248)
See Also the Following Articles
(248)
Further Reading
(248)
Autism and Asperge's Syndrome, Pages 257-260, Fred R. Volkmar and Ami Klin
(249)
Glossary
(249)
History
(249)
Scope and Extent of the Domain
(250)
Sources of Basic Principles and Theoretical Approaches
(250)
Applications and Ongoing Issues
(251)
Error Management
(251)
Decision Making and High-Stress Situations
(251)
Fatigue Countermeasures
(251)
Automation and Human-Machine Interfaces
(251)
New Training Technologies
(252)
Accident Reduction
(252)
Maintenance and Other Aviation Applications
(252)
Education and Training
(252)
Occupations and Employment
(252)
See Also the Following Articles
(253)
Further Reading
(253)
Aviation, Pages 261-265, Evan A. Byrne
(254)
Glossary
(254)
History
(254)
Scope and Extent of the Domain
(255)
Sources of Basic Principles and Theoretical Approaches
(255)
Applications and Ongoing Issues
(256)
Error Management
(256)
Decision Making and High-Stress Situations
(256)
Fatigue Countermeasures
(256)
Automation and Human-Machine Interfaces
(256)
New Training Technologies
(257)
Accident Reduction
(257)
Maintenance and Other Aviation Applications
(257)
Education and Training
(257)
Occupations and Employment
(257)
See Also the Following Articles
(258)
Further Reading
(258)
Section - B
(259)
Behavioral Assessment in Schools, Pages 267-275, Steven W. Evans, Amy L. Williams, Brandon Schultz and Mark D. Weist
(259)
Glossary
(259)
Rationale for School-Based Assessment
(260)
Evaluating Behavioral and Emotional Problems
(261)
Purpose
(261)
Traditional Assessment
(261)
Direct Observation
(263)
Analogue Assessment
(262)
Interviews
(262)
Rating Scales
(263)
Functional Behavioral Assessment
(263)
Current Issues
(264)
Evaluating Outcomes
(264)
Purpose
(264)
Observations
(264)
Rating Scales
(264)
Performance Measures
(265)
Current Issues
(265)
Legal and Ethical Issues
(265)
See Also the Following Articles
(267)
Further Reading
(267)
Behavioral Medicine Issues in Late LifeùPain, Sleep, etc., Pages 277-282, Bruce Rybarczyk
(268)
Glossary
(268)
Applying Behavioral Medicine to Older Adults
(269)
Depression and Health in Older Adults
(269)
Behavioral Sleep Medicine and Aging
(270)
Sleep Restriction
(271)
Stimulus Control
(271)
Chronic Pain Interventions for Older Adults
(272)
Behavioral Medicine Issues in the Frail Old
(272)
Summary
(273)
See Also the Following Articles
(273)
Further Reading
(273)
Behavioral Observation in Schools, Pages 283-287, John M. Hintze
(274)
Glossary
(274)
Introduction
(274)
General Methods of Behavioral Observation
(274)
Measuring and Recording Behavior Systematically
(275)
Coding Schemes
(275)
Observational Instruments
(276)
Summarizing Behavioral Observation Data
(276)
Reliability and Validity of Behavioral Observation
(277)
Summary
(278)
See Also the Following Articles
(278)
Further Reading
(278)
Boredom, Pages 289-294, William K. Balzer, Patricia C. Smith and Jennifer L. Burnfield
(279)
Glossary
(279)
Introduction
(279)
Definition of Boredom
(280)
Models of Boredom
(280)
Psychodynamic Model
(280)
Cultural Normative Model
(280)
Psychophysical Model
(280)
Cognitive-Affect Model
(281)
Measuring Boredom
(281)
Causes and Correlates of Boredom
(282)
Task as a Cause of Boredom
(282)
Work Environment as a Cause of Boredom
(282)
Person as a Cause of Boredom
(282)
Consequences of Boredom at Work
(282)
Prevention and Alleviation of Boredom
(283)
Task Interventions to Prevent and/or Alleviate Boredom at Work
(283)
Work Environment Interventions to Prevent and/or Alleviate Boredom at Work
(283)
Person Interventions to Prevent and/or Alleviate Boredom at Work
(284)
Conclusion
(284)
See Also the Following Articles
(284)
Further Reading
(284)
Bullying and Abuse on School Campuses, Pages 295-301, Michael J. Furlong, Alicia C. Soliz, Jenne M. Simental and Jennifer L. Greif
(285)
Glossary
(285)
Introduction
(285)
What Is Bullying?
(286)
How Common Is Bullying on School Campuses?
(286)
Who Are the Bullies?
(287)
Who Are the Victims?
(287)
What Are the Effects?
(287)
What Can Be Done?
(288)
Schoolwide Responses
(288)
Classroom-Level Responses
(288)
Individual-Level Responses
(289)
The Special Role of Bystanders
(289)
Implications
(290)
See Also the Following Articles
(290)
Further Reading
(291)
Section - C
(292)
Career Counseling, Pages 303-305, Mary J. Heppner and P. Paul Heppner
(292)
Glossary
(292)
The Evolution of the Definition
(292)
History of the Field of Career Counseling
(293)
The Role of Frank Parsons
(293)
Theories of Career Development
(293)
Research in Career Counseling
(294)
See Also the Following Articles
(294)
Further Reading
(294)
Cheating in Academics, Pages 307-311, Gregory J. Cizek
(295)
Glossary
(295)
Introduction
(296)
Definitions and Examples
(296)
Cheating and Validity
(296)
Professional Guidelines on Cheating
(297)
Detecting Cheating
(297)
Preventing Cheating
(298)
See Also the Following Articles
(299)
Further Reading
(299)
Cheating in Sport, Pages 313-322, Glyn C. Roberts, Yngvar Ommundsen, Pierre-Nicolas Lemyre and Blake W. Miller
(300)
Glossary
(300)
Introduction
(300)
The Context of Sport
(301)
What Is Cheating?
(302)
The Motivation to Cheat: Achievement Goals as a Determinant of Moral Action
(303)
Dispositional Achievement Goals
(304)
Perceived Motivational Climate and Determinants of Cheating
(306)
What Can We Do about Cheating?
(308)
See Also the Following Articles
(309)
Further Reading
(309)
Child Custody, Pages 323-328, David A. Martindale and Jonathan W. Gould
(310)
Glossary
(310)
Psychology’s Contribution to Understanding Best Interests
(310)
Psychological Assessment: What Can We Measure?
(311)
The Marriage of Clinical Skills and Forensic Precision
(313)
Dancing with Attorneys without Tripping
(313)
Following the Rainbow
(314)
See Also the Following Articles
(315)
Further Reading
(315)
Child Development and Culture, Pages 329-338, Cigdem Kagitcibasi
(316)
Glossary
(316)
Study of Child Development in Psychology
(316)
Study of Child Development Within Culture
(317)
Life Stages and Culture
(317)
Development in Context
(318)
The Value of Children and Family as Developmental Niche
(319)
Development of the Self
(320)
Development of Competence
(320)
Environmental Change
(321)
Cognitive Development: Piaget and Vygotsky
(321)
Nature-Nurture Debate and Plasticity
(322)
Implications for Application
(323)
Developmental Norms
(323)
Schooling
(324)
Early Enrichment
(324)
Problems in Development
(324)
Conclusion
(325)
See Also the Following Articles
(325)
Further Reading
(325)
Child Testimony, Pages 339-344, Jodi A. Quas and Brianne E. Beck
(326)
Glossary
(326)
Factors That Influence Children’s Testimony
(327)
Child Characteristics
(327)
To-Be-Remembered Event Characteristics
(327)
Interview Characteristics
(328)
Summary
(329)
Children’s Involvement in the Legal System
(329)
Conclusions
(330)
See Also the Following Articles
(331)
Further Reading
(331)
Classical Conditioning, Pages 345-349, P. Ferrándiz
(332)
Glossary
(332)
From Pavlov to the Present
(332)
Basic Conditioning Procedure
(333)
Basic Processes
(334)
Experimental Procedures
(334)
Appetitive Conditioning
(334)
Aversive Conditioning
(334)
Excitatory Conditioning
(334)
Inhibitory Conditioning
(334)
What Influences Classical Conditioning?
(334)
CS-US Interval
(335)
Applications
(335)
Everyday Human Behavior
(335)
Classical Conditioning and Emotional Response
(335)
Classical Conditioning and Food Aversion
(335)
Clinical Treatment
(335)
Systematic Desensitization Therapy
(336)
Implosive (Flooding) Therapy
(336)
See Also the Following Articles
(336)
Further Reading
(336)
Clinical Assessment, Pages 351-355, Irving B. Weiner
(337)
Glossary
(337)
Nature and Purpose of Clinical Assessment
(337)
Differential Diagnosis
(337)
Treatment Planning
(338)
Sources of Information in Clinical Assessment
(338)
Interviews
(338)
Behavioral Observations
(338)
Standardized Tests
(338)
Collateral Reports
(339)
Historical Documents
(339)
Issues in Clinical Assessment
(339)
Reliability and Validity
(339)
Malingering and Deception
(339)
Cross-Cultural Contexts
(340)
Computer-Based Test Interpretation
(340)
Future Directions
(341)
See Also the Following Articles
(341)
Further Reading
(341)
Cognition and Culture, Pages 357-363, Deanna Messervey, Li-Jun Ji and Yukiko Uchida
(342)
Glossary
(342)
Self
(343)
Attention and Perception
(343)
Reasoning Styles
(344)
Categorization
(344)
Interpersonal Perception and Memory
(345)
Social Inference
(345)
Decision Making
(346)
Language and Communication Style
(346)
Intelligence
(347)
Conclusions
(348)
See Also the Following Articles
(348)
Further Reading
(348)
Cognitive Aging, Pages 365-375, Douglas H. Powell
(349)
Glossary
(349)
Introduction
(350)
Demographic Trends
(350)
Legislative Changes
(350)
Increased Physical and Cognitive Vigor
(350)
Economic Needs
(350)
Cognitive Changes across the Life Span
(351)
Overall Cognitive Changes through the Life Span
(351)
Decline of Specific Aptitudes through the Life Span
(351)
Alzheimer’s Disease
(352)
Age-Related Variability
(353)
Evidence for Optimal Cognitive Aging
(353)
Correlates of Optimal Cognitive Aging
(354)
Activities That Directly Benefit Cognition
(355)
Activities That Indirectly Benefit Cognition
(356)
Selective Optimization with Compensation
(357)
Looking Ahead
(358)
See Also the Following Articles
(359)
Further Reading
(359)
Cognitive and Behavioral Interventions for Persons with Dementia, Pages 377-385, Jiska Cohen-Mansfield
(360)
Glossary
(360)
Introduction
(360)
Purpose of Interventions
(361)
Theoretical Frameworks
(361)
Cognitive
(361)
Behavioral Theory
(361)
Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Depressed Affect
(361)
Unmet Needs Theory
(362)
Humanistic Theory
(362)
Stages of Human Development
(362)
Types of Interventions
(362)
General Issues in Considering Types of Interventions
(362)
Cognitive Interventions
(363)
Memory Training
(363)
Cognitive Restructuring
(363)
Task Simplification/Cognitive Prosthesis
(364)
Memory Books
(364)
Spaced Retrieval for Procedural Memory
(364)
Reality Orientation
(364)
Cognitive Tasks
(364)
Behavioral Interventions
(364)
Differential Reinforcement
(364)
Stimulus Control
(364)
Maximizing Control
(364)
Increasing Levels of Pleasant Activities or Noncontingent Reinforcements
(365)
Self-Affirming Interventions
(365)
Reminiscence Therapy
(365)
Validation Therapy
(365)
Sensory Interventions
(365)
Massage/Touch
(365)
Music and White Noise
(365)
Sensory Stimulation
(365)
Social Contact Interventions
(365)
One-on-One Interaction
(365)
Pets/Dolls
(365)
Stimulated Interaction/Family Videos/Interaction Videos
(366)
Structured Activities
(366)
Indoor Activities
(366)
Outdoor Activities
(366)
Adapted/Enhanced Environmental Interventions
(366)
Visibility of Cues Needed for Activities of Daily Living
(366)
Seating in Motion
(366)
Homelike Ambience
(366)
Reduced Falls
(366)
Privacy and Intrusion Deterrence
(366)
Clear Labels and Signs
(366)
Wandering Areas
(367)
Peace and Quiet
(367)
Nature Environments
(367)
Medical/Nursing Care Interventions
(367)
Staff/Caregiver Training and Management
(367)
Combination Therapies
(367)
Efficacy, Effectiveness, and Utility
(368)
See Also the Following Articles
(368)
Further Reading
(368)
Cognitive Skills - Training, Maintenance, and Daily Usage, Pages 387-392, Karlene K. Ball, Virginia G. Wadley, David E. Vance and Jerri D. Edwards
(369)
Glossary
(369)
Cognitive Skills and Their Importance for Daily Functioning
(369)
Sensation and Perception
(370)
Attention
(370)
Speed of Processing
(370)
Memory
(370)
Executive Function
(371)
Reasoning
(371)
Cognitive Impairment
(371)
How Cognitive Skills May Be Maintained
(371)
How Cognitive Skills Can Be Trained and the Impact of Training
(372)
Cognitive Training
(372)
Durability of Training
(373)
Transfer of Training
(373)
Conclusion
(374)
See Also the Following Articles
(374)
Further Reading
(374)
Cognitivism, Pages 393-401, Pío Tudela
(375)
Glossary
(375)
Cognitivism During the Behaviorist Era
(376)
The Information-Processing Approach
(377)
Cognitive Science
(377)
Tenets of Cognitivism
(378)
Levels of Explanation
(378)
The Computational Level
(378)
The Algorithmic Level
(378)
The Level of Physical Implementation
(378)
Systems Approach
(379)
Representation
(380)
Process
(381)
Methods
(382)
Cognitivist Influence
(382)
See Also the Following Articles
(382)
Further Reading
(382)
Collective Action, Pages 403-409, Bert Klandermans
(384)
Glossary
(384)
What Is Collective Political Action?
(385)
Why Do People Participate in Collective Political Action?
(385)
The Motivation to Participate in Collective Action
(385)
Instrumentality
(385)
Identity
(387)
Ideology
(388)
The Transformation of Potentiality into Action
(389)
See Also the Following Articles
(390)
Further Reading
(390)
Color Blindness, Pages 411-420, Julio A. Lillo and Humberto Moreira
(391)
Glossary
(391)
Introduction
(392)
Using the Anomaloscope to Diagnose: Photoreceptors and Types of Color Blindness
(393)
The Origin of Metamers
(393)
Metamers and Types of Color-Blind People
(394)
Diagnosing Dichromatism and Anomalous Trichromatism with an Anomaloscope
(394)
Causes of Color Blindness
(395)
Color Blindness and Psychological Intervention
(396)
Problems and Solutions: A Case of Protanopia
(396)
Detecting and Diagnosing Color Blindness: A Two-Step Strategy
(396)
After Diagnosis: Trying to Compensate for Perceptual Limitations
(398)
Figure-Background Segmentation Difficulties
(398)
Problems Related to the Use of Basic Chromatic Categories
(398)
See Also the Following Articles
(400)
Further Reading
(400)
Community Psychology, Pages 421-428, Kenneth I. Maton
(401)
Glossary
(401)
Introduction
(401)
Guiding Values
(402)
Individual Wellness: The Physical, Psychological, Social, and Spiritual Health of Citizens
(402)
Sense of Community: Citizens’ Sense of Belonging to a Larger Group
(402)
Social Justice and Empowerment: The Equitable Distribution of Economic, Political, and Psychological Resources in Society
(402)
Citizen Participation: The Active Involvement of Citizens in All Aspects of Community Life
(402)
Collaboration and Community Strengths: Working Together with Citizens and Groups in the Community and Building on Their Str..
(402)
Respect for Human Diversity: Genuine Appreciation of Human Differences Such as Differences in Ethnicity, Gender, Sexual Ori..
(402)
Empirical Grounding: The Research Basis for Efforts to Make a Positive Difference in Communities and the Larger Society
(402)
Ecological Multilevel Framework
(403)
Community Research Methods
(404)
Community Research Areas
(404)
Social Problems
(404)
Stress and Mental Health
(405)
Community and Quality of Life
(405)
Sense of Community
(405)
Prevention and Promotion
(406)
Social Action and Community Change
(407)
See Also the Following Articles
(407)
Further Reading
(407)
Compensation, Pages 429-434, Henk Thierry
(409)
Glossary
(409)
Psychological Perspectives
(410)
The Design of Compensation
(410)
Base Pay
(410)
Performance-Related Pay
(410)
Fringe Benefits
(410)
Incidental Pay
(411)
Job Evaluation
(411)
Performance-Related Pay
(412)
Performance Appraisal: Qualitative Versus Quantitative Yardsticks
(412)
Anteceding Conditions
(413)
Study of Work
(413)
Norm Setting
(413)
Performance-Pay Link
(413)
Control by Employees
(413)
Size of Pay Differences
(414)
Some Contingencies
(414)
Conclusion
(414)
See Also the Following Articles
(414)
Further Reading
(414)
Competence at Work, Pages 435-440, Angelo S. DeNisi
(415)
Glossary
(415)
The Concept of Competence at Work
(415)
Measurement and Assessment of Competence
(417)
Barriers to Effective Assessment
(418)
Reaction to Assessments
(419)
Developing and Improving Competence
(419)
Conclusion
(420)
See Also the Following Articles
(420)
Further Reading
(420)
Competition in Sport, Pages 441-445, Daniel Gould and Cristina Rolo
(421)
Glossary
(421)
Introduction
(421)
Competitive Sport: A Worldwide Phenomenon
(421)
Purposes
(422)
Competition and the Competition Process
(422)
A Model for Understanding Competition
(422)
Positive and Negative Effects of Competition
(423)
Competitive Stress in Sport
(423)
Stress in Sport
(423)
Sources of Stress in Athletes
(424)
Are Young Athletes Placed under Too Much Stress?
(424)
Managing Competitive Stress
(424)
See Also the Following Articles
(425)
Further Reading
(425)
Conflict within Organizations, Pages 447-455, Michael Ryan and Stephanie L. Castro
(426)
Glossary
(426)
Introduction
(426)
The Conflict Process
(427)
Conflict Management Strategies
(428)
Structural Conditions Affecting Conflict
(429)
Individual Characteristics
(430)
Organizational Characteristics
(430)
Conflict Outcomes
(431)
Third-Party Intervention
(432)
Methods of Intervention
(432)
Outcomes of Intervention
(433)
Conclusion
(433)
See Also the Following Articles
(433)
Further Reading
(434)
Conformity across Cultures, Pages 457-460, Rod Bond
(435)
Glossary
(435)
Comparisons Across Cultures
(435)
Comparisons of Subsistence Economies
(435)
Comparisons of Developed Societies
(436)
Comparisons of Cultural Groups within a Society
(436)
Conformity and Individualism-Collectivism
(436)
Comparisons within a Culture at Different Periods in its History
(437)
Conformity or Harmony?
(437)
Conclusion
(438)
See Also the Following Articles
(438)
Further Reading
(438)
Connectionism, Pages 461-468, Yoshihisa Kashima
(439)
Glossary
(439)
Introduction
(440)
General Features of the Connectionist Cognitive Architecture
(440)
Localist and Distributed Representational Systems and Their Properties
(441)
Dynamics of an Information Processing Unit
(442)
Dynamics of Interunit Connections
(443)
Examples of Connectionist Architectures
(444)
Applications of Connectionism
(445)
See Also the Following Articles
(446)
Further Reading
(446)
Conscientiousness, Pages 469-472, Robert R. McCrae
(447)
Glossary
(447)
Conscientiousness as a Dimension of Personality
(447)
Origin and Development of Conscientiousness
(448)
Applications
(448)
Mental Health and Psychotherapy
(448)
Physical Health
(449)
Academic Performance
(449)
Job Performance
(449)
Conclusion
(449)
See Also the Following Articles
(450)
Further Reading
(450)
Conservation Behavior, Pages 473-477, Florian G. Kaiser
(451)
Glossary
(451)
Conceptions of Conservation Behavior
(451)
Face Value Action: A Multitude of Behavior Types
(452)
Goal-Directed Action: One Class of Behavioral Means
(452)
Performance and Consequences
(453)
A Primary Focus on Consequences
(453)
A Deficient Relationship
(453)
No Goal, No Drive
(453)
Shaping Performance
(454)
Multiple Behaviors, Determinants, and Complex Interventions
(454)
Differentially Striving for a Single Goal
(454)
Acknowledgments
(455)
See Also the Following Articles
(455)
Further Reading
(455)
Consultation Processes in Schools, Pages 479-481, Joseph E. Zins and Charlene R. Ponti
(456)
Glossary
(456)
Introduction
(456)
Definition
(457)
Key Components and Applications
(457)
Participants
(457)
Ecobehavioral Perspective
(457)
Preventive Orientation
(457)
Problem Solving
(457)
Relationship and Interpersonal Aspects
(457)
External Consultants
(458)
Other Approaches to Consultation
(458)
See Also the Following Articles
(458)
Further Reading
(458)
Consumer Psychology, Pages 483-492, Michael R. Solomon
(459)
Glossary
(459)
I Buy, Therefore I Am
(460)
Consumers as Decision Makers
(461)
Stages in the Decision-Making Process
(461)
Need Recognition
(461)
Information Search
(462)
Evaluation of Alternatives
(462)
Purchase
(463)
Postpurchase Evaluation and Satisfaction
(463)
Biases in the Decision-Making Process
(464)
‘‘Irrational’’ Decision Making
(465)
Psychological Influences on Consumption
(465)
Psychographics and Lifestyles
(466)
Personality Theory Applications to Consumer Behavior
(466)
Freudian Theory
(466)
Jungian Theory
(466)
Trait Theory
(466)
Cultural and Interpersonal Influences on Consumption
(466)
Subcultures and Reference Groups
(467)
Opinion Leaders
(467)
Diffusion of Innovations
(467)
See Also the Following Articles
(467)
Further Reading
(467)
Contracts, Pages 493-496, René Schalk
(469)
Glossary
(469)
Introduction
(469)
What Is a Contract?
(469)
Different Types of Contracts
(470)
Contracts in Employment
(470)
Consequences of Violations of Contracts
(470)
Cross-National Differences
(470)
Implications
(471)
See Also the Following Articles
(471)
Further Reading
(472)
Cooperation at Work, Pages 497-505, Eduardo Salas, Dana E. Sims and Cameron Klein
(473)
Glossary
(473)
Importance of Teamwork
(474)
Teamwork Examined
(474)
Teamwork Derailers
(475)
Facilitators of Teamwork
(476)
Promoting Cooperation and Teamwork at Work through Training
(477)
Measuring Team Performance and Effectiveness
(479)
Conclusion
(480)
See Also the Following Articles
(481)
Further Reading
(481)
Coping, Pages 507-510, Carolyn M. Aldwin and Loriena A. Yancura
(482)
Glossary
(482)
Types of Coping
(482)
Psychoanalytic Approaches
(483)
Coping Styles
(483)
Coping Processes
(483)
Measurement Issues
(484)
Coping and Health Outcomes
(484)
Mental Health Outcomes
(484)
Coping with Stressors
(484)
Coping with Trauma
(484)
Physical Health Outcomes
(485)
See Also the Following Articles
(485)
Further Reading
(485)
Counseling and Culture, Pages 511-518, Paul B. Pedersen
(486)
Glossary
(486)
Introduction
(486)
Cultural Bias in Counseling
(487)
Cultural Encapsulation of Counselors
(487)
Culturally Learned Assumptions in Counselor Education
(487)
The Cultural Grid Linking Counseling and Culture
(489)
Multicultural Theories of Counseling
(489)
Multiculturalism as a Fourth Force
(491)
Resistance to Multiculturalism as a Fourth Force
(491)
Conclusion
(492)
See Also the Following Articles
(492)
Further Reading
(492)
Counseling Interview, Pages 519-525, Paul H. Glasser and Sara F. Fine
(494)
Glossary
(494)
Purpose and Goals
(495)
Dynamics of Counselor-Client Interaction
(495)
Issues, Dilemmas, and Contradictions in the Counseling Process
(496)
Values and Ethics
(496)
Confidentiality
(497)
Trust
(497)
Diversity
(498)
Listening
(499)
Silence
(499)
Conclusion
(499)
See Also the Following Articles
(500)
Further Reading
(500)
Cross-Cultural Psychology, Overview, Pages 527-538, J. W. Berry and Harry C. Triandis
(501)
Glossary
(501)
Definition of Cross-Cultural Psychology
(501)
Definition of Culture
(502)
Relationships with Other Perspectives
(502)
History of Cross-Cultural Psychology
(502)
Theory
(503)
Methodology
(503)
Levels of Analysis
(503)
Comparability and Equivalence
(504)
Emics and Etics
(504)
Translation
(505)
Dimensions of Cultural Variation
(505)
Complexity
(505)
Tightness and Looseness
(505)
Collectivism and Individualism
(506)
Antecedents of Collectivism
(507)
Consequences Of Collectivism for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation
(508)
Evaluation of the Construct
(509)
Power Distance
(509)
Sex Differentiation
(510)
Dealing with Time
(510)
Missing Topics
(510)
Evaluation of Findings and Applications
(510)
See Also the Following Articles
(511)
Further Reading
(511)
Cultural Complexity, Pages 539-544, Mark W. Allen and James H. Liu
(513)
Glossary
(513)
Cultural Complexity: A Recent Phenomenon
(514)
Cultural Complexity Defined
(514)
Theories on the Origins of Cultural Complexity
(514)
Measuring Cultural Complexity
(515)
Cultural Complexity and Dimensions of Cultural Variation
(516)
Globalization and Cultural Complexity
(517)
See Also the Following Articles
(518)
Further Reading
(518)
Cultural Psychology, Pages 545-553, Patricia M. Greenfield and Heidi Keller
(519)
Glossary
(519)
Introduction
(520)
The Conception of Culture in Cultural Psychology: Conceptual and Methodological Issues
(520)
Cultural Psychology Compared with Cross-Cultural Psychology
(520)
Cultural Psychology Compared with Indigenous Psychology
(522)
Comparing Indigenous, Cross-Cultural Psychology, and Cultural Psychology
(522)
Sociopolitical Roots of Cultural Psychology
(522)
Exemplars of Research Programs
(523)
Parental Ethnotheories: An Example of Shared Meaning
(523)
Apprenticeship: The Historical Transformation of Shared Practice
(524)
Connecting Shared Practice to Shared Meaning
(525)
Application of Cultural Psychology
(525)
Conclusions: An Example of Cultural Process
(526)
See Also the Following Articles
(526)
Further Reading
(526)
Cultural Syndromes, Pages 555-560, Harry C. Triandis
(528)
Glossary
(528)
Examples of Cultural Syndromes
(529)
Cultural Complexity
(529)
Tightness
(529)
Collectivism
(529)
Individualism
(529)
Some Contrasts between Individualism and Collectivism
(530)
Kinds of Individualism and Collectivism
(530)
Hierarchy Versus Equality
(530)
Masculinity Versus Femininity
(531)
Pragmatic Induction Versus Ideological Authoritarianism
(531)
Short Versus Long Time Perspective
(531)
Valuing Planning Versus Spontaneity
(531)
Universalism Versus Particularism
(531)
Specificity Versus Diffusion
(531)
Process Versus Outcome
(531)
Additional Syndromes
(531)
Relationships among the Cultural Syndromes
(531)
Practical Significance
(532)
See Also the Following Articles
(532)
Further Reading
(533)
Cyberpsychology, Pages 561-568, José M. Prieto
(534)
Glossary
(534)
Cyberspace: A Technocultural Realm
(535)
Cyberpsychology: An Increasingly Grounded Brand Name
(536)
Cyberpsychology: Six Perspectives as Operational Tools
(538)
A Tool for Psychologists
(538)
Alternate Dimensions of Experience
(539)
Psychological Processes and Human Performance
(539)
Optimizing the Cyberspace Experience
(540)
Cyber Pathology
(540)
Information and Knowledge Management
(540)
See Also the Following Articles
(540)
Further Reading
(540)
Section - D
(542)
Decision Making, Pages 569-574, Helmut Jungermann
(542)
Glossary
(542)
Introduction
(542)
Key Concepts
(543)
Features and Distinctions
(543)
Value/Utility
(544)
Uncertainty/Probability
(544)
Models and Modes of Decision Making
(545)
Methods
(546)
Areas of Application
(546)
Conclusion
(547)
See Also the Following Articles
(547)
Further Reading
(547)
Decision Making in Sport, Pages 575-584, Gershon Tenenbaum
(548)
Glossary
(548)
Introduction
(548)
Nonsport Perspectives on DM
(549)
DM in Sport: The Dynamics and Mechanisms
(550)
Visual-Spatial Attention
(551)
Priming, Attentional Flexibility, and Dimensions of Attention
(552)
Anticipatory Mechanisms
(552)
Memory Representations, Information Delivery, and Knowledge Structure
(553)
Decision Alteration
(554)
DM in Teams
(554)
Affective States and DM
(555)
Perceived Stress and DM
(555)
Coping Strategies and Self-Regulation
(556)
Self-Efficacy and DM
(556)
Summary: A Holistic View of DM in Sport
(556)
See Also the Following Articles
(557)
Further Reading
(557)
Dementia in Older Adults, Pages 585-591, Marie E. Cowart
(558)
Glossary
(558)
Senility: What It Is and What It Isn’t
(559)
History
(559)
Definition of Normal and Impaired Cognitive Functioning
(559)
Myths and Stereotyping
(559)
Extent of the Problem
(560)
Positive Risk Factors
(560)
Negative Risk Factors
(560)
Preventive Measures
(560)
Nutrition and Nutritional Supplements
(560)
Pharmacological Effects
(560)
Physical and Mental Activity
(561)
Early and Late Recognition
(561)
Early Recognition and Intervention
(561)
Clinical Picture
(561)
Screening and Diagnostic Tools
(561)
Misdiagnoses and Comorbidities
(562)
Head Injury
(562)
Stroke, Atherosclerosis of Cerebral Arteries, High Cholesterol, and Hypertension
(562)
Oxygen Depletion of Cardiovascular or Respiratory Origin
(563)
Parkinsonism
(563)
Chronic Mental Illness
(563)
Drugs or Other Toxic Substances
(563)
Other Conditions Such as Dehydration, Fatigue, and Relocation
(563)
Interventions and Caring
(563)
Dietary Supplements and Medications
(563)
Memory Aids and Other Nonpharmacological Treatments
(563)
Management Concerns
(563)
Future Prospects
(564)
See Also the Following Articles
(564)
Further Reading
(564)
Depression in Late Life, Pages 593-599, Barry A. Edelstein, Andrea Shreve-Neiger and Stephanie A. Scheck
(565)
Glossary
(565)
Epidemiology of Late-Life Depression
(565)
Conceptual and Diagnostic Issues
(566)
Relations Among Depression, Physical Diseases, and Medications
(566)
Assessment of Depression
(567)
Instruments for the Assessment of Depression
(567)
Self-Report Instruments
(567)
Beck Depression Inventory
(567)
Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale
(567)
Geriatric Depression Scale
(567)
Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale
(567)
Clinician Rating Scales
(568)
Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression
(568)
Geriatric Depression Rating Scale
(568)
Instruments for Assessing Depression with Coexisting Dementia
(568)
Cornell Scale for Depression in Dementia
(568)
Dementia Mood Assessment Scale
(568)
Treatment of Late-Life Depression
(568)
Evidence-Based Psychosocial Treatments
(568)
Psychodynamic Therapies
(568)
Behavior Therapy
(569)
Cognitive Therapy
(569)
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy
(569)
Interpersonal Psychotherapy
(569)
Other Psychosocial Treatments
(569)
Life Review Therapy
(569)
Group Therapy
(570)
Less Common Forms of Treatment
(570)
See Also the Following Articles
(570)
Further Reading
(570)
Developmental Counseling, Pages 601-606, David A. Jepsen
(572)
Glossary
(572)
Introduction
(572)
The Developmental Viewpoint
(573)
Collaborative Relationships
(574)
Guiding Principles for Developmental Counseling Processes
(575)
Appraisal in Developmental Counseling
(575)
Developmental Counseling Interventions for Resolving Current Developmental Problems
(576)
Developmental Counseling Interventions for Preventing or Reducing Developmental Problems
(576)
See Also the Following Articles
(576)
Further Reading
(576)
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Pages 607-614, Victoria del Barrio
(578)
Glossary
(578)
Antecedents
(578)
DSM-I (1952)
(579)
DSM-II (1968)
(580)
DSM-III (1980)
(580)
Explicit Diagnostic Operational Criteria
(581)
Inclusion of Five Diagnostic Axes
(581)
DSM-III-R (1987)
(582)
DSM-IV (1994)
(582)
Categorical Development of the DSM
(582)
Important Changes
(582)
Critical Positions
(582)
See Also the Following Articles
(585)
Further Reading
(585)
Diverse Cultures, Dealing with Children and Families from, Pages 615-620, Antoinette Halsell Miranda
(586)
Glossary
(586)
Introduction
(586)
Racial and Ethnic Identity
(587)
Understanding Culture as a Continuum
(587)
Cross-Cultural Competence
(588)
Cross-Cultural Communication
(588)
Diversity in Education
(589)
Implications for Practice
(590)
See Also the Following Articles
(590)
Further Reading
(591)
Downsizing and Outplacement, Pages 621-626, Wayne F. Cascio
(592)
Glossary
(592)
Downsizing Defined
(593)
Downsizing and Organizational Decline
(593)
Extent and Scope of Employment Downsizing
(593)
Mergers, Acquisitions, and the Demise of Loyalty
(593)
Corporate Financial Performance before and after Downsizing
(594)
Is Downsizing Always Wrong?
(594)
Effects of Downsizing on Knowledge-Based Organizations
(594)
The Psychological Impact of Downsizing on Victims and Survivors
(595)
Roles of Procedural and Distributive Justice in Employment Downsizing
(595)
Outplacement: Easing the Career Transition Process
(596)
See Also the Following Articles
(596)
Further Reading
(596)
Driving, Risky, Pages 627-632, David W. Eby
(598)
Glossary
(598)
Factors Related to Risky Driving Behavior
(599)
Age
(599)
Gender
(599)
Sensation Seeking
(599)
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
(599)
Theories of Risky Driving Behavior
(600)
Zero Risk
(600)
Risk Homeostasis
(600)
Utility Maximization
(600)
Problem Behavior
(600)
Decision Making
(600)
Countermeasures for Reducing Risky Driving Behaviors
(601)
Legislation/Enforcement
(601)
Licensing
(601)
Educational Programs
(601)
Conclusion
(602)
See Also the Following Articles
(602)
Further Reading
(602)
Driving Safety, Pages 633-638, Fredrick M. Streff
(604)
Glossary
(604)
Driving Safety as a Behavioral Target
(604)
Speeding
(605)
Alcohol-Impaired Driving
(606)
Safety Belt Nonuse
(606)
Driving Safety among Older Drivers
(607)
Driving Safety among Younger Drivers
(608)
Conclusion
(609)
See Also the Following Articles
(609)
Further Reading
(609)
Drug Abuse, Pages 639-643, Charles E. Dodgen
(610)
Glossary
(610)
Introduction
(610)
Risk Factors and Causes of Drug Abuse
(611)
Course of Drug Abuse
(612)
Assessment of Drug Abuse
(612)
Treatment of Drug Abuse
(613)
Relapse Prevention
(613)
See Also the Following Articles
(613)
Further Reading
(614)
Drug Dependence, Pages 645-653, Douglas H. Ruben
(615)
Glossary
(615)
Concept of Drug Dependence
(616)
Dependence versus Abuse
(617)
Primary Types of Drug Dependence
(617)
Medication Mismanagement
(618)
Routes of Administration Accelerating Addiction
(618)
Contingencies of Dependence
(618)
Types of Drug Response Classes Conditioned
(619)
Topography and Function of Drug Response Classes
(619)
Avoidance and Escape Effects of Drug Response Classes
(620)
Susceptibility to Drug-Dependent Response Patterns
(620)
Effects of Titration on Drug Response Class
(620)
Family Reasons for Recidivism
(621)
Family Distrust
(621)
Family Protectiveness
(621)
Newly Surfaced Resentment
(622)
Recovery as Threat to Family
(622)
Conclusion
(622)
See Also the Following Articles
(623)
Further Reading
(623)
Section - E
(624)
Educational Achievement and Culture, Pages 667-673, David S. Goh and Harry W. Gardiner
(624)
Glossary
(624)
Introduction
(625)
Overview of Cultural Approaches to Teaching, Learning, and Achievement
(625)
Cultural Models of Schooling
(626)
Approaches to Teacher Training
(626)
Cross-Cultural Differences in Mathematics Achievement
(626)
Cultural Explanations for Cross-Ethnic Differences in Achievement in the United States
(627)
Ethnic Differences in Cultural Factors Affecting Achievement
(628)
Educational Effort
(628)
Cultural Values and Beliefs
(629)
Parental Educational Expectations
(629)
Parental Involvement
(629)
Peer Influence
(629)
Directions for Future Research on Cross-Cultural Achievement
(629)
See Also the Following Articles
(630)
Further Reading
(630)
Educational and Child Assessment, Pages 675-685, Jan ter Laak and Martijn de Goede
(631)
Glossary
(631)
Introduction
(631)
Four Goals of Assessment
(632)
A Comprehensive Definition of Assessment
(633)
Psychological Theories and Constructs in Assessing Children’s Achievements and Social Adaptation and Personality
(633)
Modeling Children’s Achievements and Socioemotional Adaptation
(634)
Modeling Individual Differences in Intelligence and Aptitudes
(634)
Modeling Development of Achievements
(635)
Modeling the Context of Achievements
(635)
Instruments for Assessing Children’s Achievements and Socioemotional Adaptation
(635)
Screening of Developmental Backwardness
(635)
Cognitive and Sensorimotor Motor Development
(636)
School Achievement
(636)
Socioemotional Adaptation
(636)
Childhood Pathology
(636)
Personality and Temperament
(636)
Social Status in a Peer Group
(637)
Children’s Social Environments
(637)
The Assessment Process in Children
(637)
Possibilities and Limitations in Assessing Children
(638)
Conclusion
(638)
Case Study: an Example of Educational and Child Assessment
(638)
Summary of the Results for the Client (Bryan, Teacher, School, and Parents)
(639)
Three Months Later
(639)
The Psychological Investigation of Bryan and the Assessment Components
(640)
See Also the Following Articles
(640)
Further Reading
(640)
Effective Classroom Instruction, Pages 687-691, Margo A. Mastropieri and Thomas E. Scruggs
(642)
Glossary
(642)
Introduction
(642)
Overview of Effective Classroom Instruction
(643)
Planning for Content Coverage
(643)
Using Effective Teaching Strategies
(644)
Promoting Effective Inclusive Instruction
(645)
See Also the Following Articles
(646)
Further Reading
(646)
Elder Abuse, Pages 693-701, Michael A. Rodríguez and Donna Benton
(647)
Glossary
(647)
Introduction
(648)
Background
(648)
Definition
(648)
Types of Abuse
(648)
Physical
(648)
Neglect and Self-Neglect
(648)
Psychological/Emotional Abuse
(648)
Financial Abuse
(648)
Sexual Abuse
(648)
Epidemiology of Abuse
(649)
Law
(649)
Theories of Abuse: Risk Factor Profiles
(649)
Impairment of the Elder
(649)
Perpetrator Characteristics
(649)
The Interaction between Caregiver and Care Receiver
(650)
Multi-Factor Clinical Assessments
(650)
Clinical Management of Elder Abuse
(650)
General Evaluation and Analysis
(650)
Approach
(650)
Observation
(651)
History Taking
(651)
Past History
(651)
Family History
(651)
Screening
(651)
Assessment of Cognitive Status and Personality of the Patient
(651)
Risk Factor Assessment
(652)
Treatment and Management
(652)
Ethical Issues
(653)
Autonomy
(654)
Justice
(654)
Beneficence and Maleficence
(654)
Future Directions
(654)
Summary
(654)
Acknowledgments
(654)
See Also the Following Articles
(655)
Further Reading
(655)
Elder Caregiving, Pages 703-711, Allison M. Burton, Jung Kwak and William E. Haley
(656)
Glossary
(656)
Introduction
(656)
Overview of Elder Caregiving
(657)
Stressors of Caregiving: What Do Caregivers Do?
(657)
Individual Differences in Reaction to Caregiving
(658)
Racial and Ethnic Diversity Issues
(660)
Biopsychosocial Impact of Caregiving
(660)
Interventions for Caregivers
(662)
Concluding Comments
(664)
See Also the Following Articles
(664)
Further Reading
(664)
Emotion, Pages 713-722, Belinda Campos, Dacher Keltner and Molly Parker Tapias
(665)
Glossary
(665)
Introduction
(665)
Defining Emotion
(666)
Measuring Emotion
(666)
Social Functions of Emotion
(666)
Anger
(667)
Anxiety
(668)
Embarrassment
(668)
Fear
(668)
Happiness
(668)
Love
(669)
Sadness
(669)
Emotions and Health
(669)
Emotions and Work
(671)
Emotions in School
(672)
Conclusion
(673)
See Also the Following Articles
(673)
Further Reading
(673)
Emotional and Behavioral Problems, Students with, Pages 723-730, Thomas J. Huberty
(675)
Glossary
(675)
Introduction
(675)
Conceptualizations of Child and Adolescent Psychopathology
(675)
The Taxonomy of Mental Disorders
(676)
Behaviors, Symptoms, Syndromes, and Disorders
(676)
Mental Disorders in Children and Adolescents
(677)
Internalizing Disorders
(677)
Social Correlates of Internalizing Patterns
(678)
Academic Correlates of Internalizing Behaviors
(678)
Externalizing Disorders
(679)
Social Correlates of Disruptive Behavior Disorders
(680)
Academic Correlates of Disruptive Behavior Disorders
(680)
Interventions
(680)
Programmatic Interventions
(680)
Individual Interventions
(681)
Internalizing Patterns
(681)
Externalizing Patterns
(681)
Medications
(682)
See Also the Following Articles
(682)
Further Reading
(682)
Emotion and Culture, Pages 731-737, Batja Mesquita and Ashleigh Haire
(683)
Glossary
(683)
Are There Universal Emotions?
(684)
Facial and Vocal Expression Research
(684)
Physiological Response Patterns Research
(684)
What Components of Emotions Are Universal?
(685)
Universal Dimensions of Appraisal and Action Readiness
(685)
Appraisal and Action Readiness Dimensions and Emotions
(686)
Are Emotions Culture Specific?
(686)
Antecedent Events
(687)
Appraisal
(688)
Relationship Goals and Action Readiness
(688)
Conclusion
(688)
See Also the Following Articles
(689)
Further Reading
(689)
Emotion in Sport - An Individualized Approach, Pages 739-750, Yuri L. Hanin
(690)
Glossary
(690)
Introduction
(690)
Individualized Approach to Performance Emotions
(691)
The Meaning of the IZOF Acronym
(691)
Individual
(691)
Zones
(691)
Optimal
(691)
Functioning
(692)
Basic Assumptions of the IZOF Model
(692)
Multidimensional Description of Performance Emotions
(692)
Form Dimension
(692)
Content Dimension
(693)
Intensity Dimension
(693)
Context Dimension
(693)
Time Dimension
(693)
Prediction of Emotion-Performance Relationships
(693)
Interindividual Variability
(693)
In-Out of the Zone Principle
(694)
Interactive Effects
(694)
Dynamics and Bidirectionality
(694)
Explaining Emotion-Performance Relationships
(695)
Appraisals and the Emotion Process
(695)
Emotion Impact on Performance
(695)
Individualized Assessments and Monitoring of Emotions
(695)
Interviews
(696)
Individualized Emotion Profiling
(696)
Self-Generated Metaphors
(697)
Narratives
(698)
Practical Implications
(699)
Conclusion
(700)
See Also the Following Articles
(701)
Further Reading
(701)
Employment Discrimination, Pages 751-762, Mary L. Tenopyr
(702)
Glossary
(702)
Basic Concepts in Employment Discrimination
(703)
Early Law Relating to Employment Discrimination
(704)
Role of Validity
(704)
Discrimination in Education
(705)
Validation
(705)
Evidence of Validity
(706)
Evidence Based on Content
(706)
Evidence Based on Response Processes
(707)
Evidence Based on Internal Structure
(707)
Evidence Based on Relationships with Other Variables
(707)
Evidence Based on Consequences
(708)
Other Evidence-Related Issues
(708)
Fairness and Bias
(709)
Special Selection Situations
(709)
Aging
(709)
Individuals with Disabilities
(710)
Linguistic Minorities
(711)
Sexual Harassment
(711)
Conclusion
(712)
See Also the Following Articles
(712)
Further Reading
(712)
Employment Interviewing, Pages 763-768, Deborah L. Whetzel and Michael A. McDaniel
(714)
Glossary
(714)
Overview
(714)
Definition
(714)
Levels of Structure
(715)
Methods for Enhancing the Structure of Interviews
(715)
Psychometric Characteristics of the Interview
(716)
Reliability
(716)
Validity
(716)
Correlations with Other Constructs
(717)
Subgroup Differences
(717)
Incremental Validity beyond General Mental Ability
(718)
Conclusion
(718)
See Also the Following Articles
(718)
Further Reading
(718)
End of Life Issues, Pages 769-776, Rebecca S. Allen, Laura L. Phillips and Kristen Payne
(720)
Glossary
(720)
Introduction
(721)
Definitions and Differentiation of Hospice and Palliative Care
(721)
Predictors of Mortality
(721)
Advance Care Planning within a Family Context
(722)
Familial Caregiver Strain and Growth Potential
(722)
Therapeutic Assessment
(724)
Therapeutic Interventions and Treatments
(724)
Study to Understand Prognoses and Preferences for Outcomes and Risks of Treatments
(724)
Advance Directives, Values Assessment, and Communication Enhancement
(725)
Meaning-Centered Group Interventions
(725)
Individual Problem-Solving Skills Training
(726)
Ongoing Studies by the Authors
(726)
Conclusion
(727)
Acknowledgments
(727)
See Also the Following Articles
(727)
Further Reading
(727)
Engineering Psychology, Pages 777-786, Klaus-Peter Timpe, Hans-Gerhard Giesa and Katharina Seifert
(728)
Glossary
(728)
Historical Background
(728)
The Human-Machine System as the Subject of Engineering Psychology
(729)
Human Information Processing in Human-Machine Systems
(730)
Circulation of Information in Human-Machine Systems
(730)
Goal Setting
(731)
Perception and Interface Design
(731)
Cognition
(731)
Knowledge-Based Supporting Aids
(732)
Decision Support Systems
(732)
Motoric
(733)
Attention
(733)
Human Reliability
(733)
Methods
(734)
System Validation
(734)
Cognitive Task Analysis and Knowledge Elicitation
(734)
Human Reliability Analysis Techniques
(735)
Usability Testing
(735)
Computer Simulations
(735)
Development and Planning of Human-Machine Systems
(735)
Future Developments
(736)
See Also the Following Articles
(737)
Further Reading
(737)
Environmental Assessment, Pages 787-791, Rudolf H. Moos and Charles J. Holahan
(738)
Glossary
(738)
Major Domains of Environmental Features
(738)
Physical and Architectural Features
(738)
Institutional Structure and Policies
(739)
Suprapersonal Factors
(739)
Social Climate
(739)
Linkages Among Environmental Features
(739)
Behavior Settings
(739)
Physical Features and Social Climate
(740)
Institutional Structure and Policies and Social Climate
(740)
Suprapersonal Factors and Social Climate
(740)
Influence of Environmental Factors
(740)
Environmental Impacts
(740)
Person-Environment Matching Models
(741)
Transactional Models
(741)
Conclusion
(741)
See Also the Following Articles
(741)
Further Reading
(742)
Environmental Design and Planning, Public Participation in, Pages 793-800, Arza Churchman and Elisheva Sadan
(743)
Glossary
(743)
Introduction
(744)
Issues Bedeviling Participation
(746)
Why Involve Others and Why Participate Oneself?
(746)
Why Is Involving Others So Difficult?
(747)
Who Is the Public?
(747)
Whose Values Are Primary?
(748)
How Does One Involve Others?
(748)
The Role of Environmental Psychology in the Public Participation Arena
(749)
See Also the Following Articles
(749)
Further Reading
(749)
Environmental Psychology, Overview, Pages 801-814, Mirilia Bonnes and Giuseppe Carrus
(751)
Glossary
(751)
The Historical and Conceptual Backgrounds of Environmental Psychology
(752)
Environmental Psychology within and around the Psychological Tradition
(752)
Environmental Psychology and Other Environmental Fields
(753)
The Main Areas of Interest of Current Environmental Psychology
(754)
Spatial Behavior
(754)
Environmental Cognition and Cognitive Mapping
(756)
Environmental Stress and Restorative Environments
(756)
Environmental Assessment
(757)
Environmental Concern, Environmentally Friendly Behaviors, and Natural Resources
(759)
Place-Specific Environmental Psychology
(761)
The Future of Environmental Psychology
(763)
See Also the Following Articles
(764)
Further Reading
(764)
Environmental Stress, Pages 815-824, Gary W. Evans and Sheldon Cohen
(765)
Glossary
(765)
Theoretical Framework
(766)
Cumulative Fatigue
(766)
Behavioral Aftereffects
(766)
Spillover
(766)
Diminished Coping with Multiple Stressors
(767)
Learned Helplessness
(767)
Cognitive Consequences
(767)
Motivational Consequences
(768)
Physiological Mobilization
(769)
Physiological Stress
(769)
Effort by Stressor Tradeoff
(770)
Overgeneralization
(770)
Coping Perseveration
(770)
Adaptation Level Shifts
(771)
Conclusion
(771)
Acknowledgments
(772)
See Also the Following Articles
(772)
Further Reading
(772)
Environmental Versus Individual Risk Taking - Perception, Decision, Behavior, Pages 825-840, Charles Vlek
(775)
Glossary
(775)
Risk Levels, Definitions, and Complications
(776)
Research Origins
(776)
Different Levels of Risk
(776)
Definitions of Risk
(777)
Development of Risk Psychology
(777)
Models and Mechanisms of Individual Risk Taking
(777)
Classical Decision Theory
(777)
Prospect Theory
(779)
Probability Estimation
(779)
Probability Interpretations
(779)
Estimation Heuristics
(779)
Frequency versus Scenario Information
(780)
External versus Internal Control
(780)
When Risks and Benefits Correlate: Risk Homeostasis
(781)
Optimal Risk Taking
(781)
Risk Homeostasis and Safety Regulation
(781)
Risk-Taking Illusions
(782)
Protection Motivation Theory
(782)
Emotional Significance of Risk
(782)
Negative Meaning of Risk
(783)
Positive Meaning of Risk
(784)
Comparative Judgment of Multidimensional Risks
(784)
Multidimensionality of Risk
(784)
Group Differences in Risk Judgment
(785)
Importance of Trust
(785)
Undermining of Self-Confidence
(785)
Meaning and Feasibility of Risk Comparisons
(785)
External Risk Acceptance: Rules, Heuristics, and Procedures
(786)
Risk-Benefit Trade-Offs
(786)
Risk-Limiting Standards
(786)
Risk as Low as Reasonably Achievable
(786)
Justification, Risk Limits, and ALARA
(787)
Societal Risk Acceptance: Importance of Procedures
(787)
Collective Risks in Commons Dilemmas
(787)
Definition of a Commons Dilemma
(787)
Macro and Micro Level Perspectives
(787)
Key Issues for Research and Policymaking
(788)
Structural and Individual Factors of Social Cooperation and Defection
(788)
Precautionary Principle
(788)
Conclusion
(789)
See Also the Following Articles
(789)
Further Reading
(790)
Ethics and Social Responsibility, Pages 841-844, Pieter J. D. Drenth
(791)
Glossary
(791)
Science: Value Free or Value Bound?
(792)
Ethical and Social Responsibility
(793)
‘‘No-Go’’ or ‘‘Slow-Go’’ Decisions?
(793)
See Also the Following Articles
(794)
Further Reading
(794)
Exceptional Students, Pages 845-852, Jessica Singer-Dudek
(795)
Glossary
(795)
Who Are Exceptional Students?
(796)
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(796)
The Six Principles of IDEA
(797)
Zero Reject
(797)
Nondiscriminatory Evaluation
(797)
Appropriate and Beneficial Education
(797)
Least Restrictive Environment
(797)
Procedural Due Process
(798)
Parent and Student Participation
(798)
The Continuum of Services
(798)
Labeling and Classification of Exceptional Students
(798)
Assessment of Exceptional Students
(799)
Characteristics of Exceptional Students
(800)
Learning Characteristics
(800)
Social Characteristics
(800)
Behavioral Characteristics
(801)
Implications for Professionals and Families
(801)
See Also the Following Articles
(801)
Further Reading
(801)
Executive Development and Coaching, Pages 853-860, Rob Silzer
(803)
Glossary
(803)
What Is the Historical Context?
(803)
Who Is an Effective Executive?
(804)
What Is Executive Development?
(805)
What Are Typical Executive Development Approaches?
(805)
Assessment Approaches
(805)
Performance Reviews
(806)
Multisource Feedback
(806)
Individual Assessment
(806)
Intervention Approaches
(806)
Learning through the Experience of Others as an Individual
(807)
Learning through the Experience of Others with a Group
(807)
Learning by Personal Experience as an Individual
(807)
Learning by Personal Experience with a Group
(807)
What Is Executive Coaching?
(808)
Which Performance Areas Are More Amenable to Development?
(808)
Which Executives Are More Likely to Develop?
(809)
What Are the Hallmarks of Development Success and Failure?
(809)
See Also the Following Articles
(810)
Further Reading
(810)
Extreme Environments and Mental Function, Pages 861-867, Robert B. Bechtel
(811)
Glossary
(811)
Definitions
(811)
The Environments
(812)
The Temporary Environments
(812)
Antarctica
(812)
Space Travel
(812)
Simulation Laboratories
(813)
Permanent Extreme Environments
(813)
High Mountains
(813)
Deserts
(815)
Cold Regions
(815)
Jungles
(816)
The Overlap
(816)
Isolation: The Changing Extreme
(816)
Conclusions
(817)
The Temporary Environments
(817)
The Permanent Environments
(817)
See Also the Following Articles
(817)
Further Reading
(817)
Extroversion-Introversion, Pages 869-873, Gerald Matthews
(818)
Glossary
(818)
Psychometric Foundations
(818)
Origins and Early Studies
(818)
Assessment of Extroversion-Introversion
(819)
Biological Bases
(819)
Behavior and Molecular Genetics
(819)
Psychophysiological Studies
(819)
Cognitive-Social Perspectives
(820)
Information-Processing Studies
(820)
Social Cognition
(820)
Clinical Applications
(820)
Emotional Disorders
(820)
Personality Disorders and Criminality
(821)
Occupational Applications
(821)
Vocational Choice
(821)
Job Performance
(821)
Conclusions
(821)
See Also the Following Articles
(821)
Further Reading
(822)
Eyewitness Identification, Pages 875-887, Colin G. Tredoux, Christian A. Meissner and Roy S. MalpassLaura A. Zimmerman
(823)
Glossary
(823)
Introduction
(824)
Stages in the Eyewitness Process
(824)
Categorization of Variables
(824)
General Research Assumptions
(825)
The Event
(825)
Time to View the Event/Perpetrator
(825)
Distance from the Event/Perpetrator
(825)
Visibility
(826)
Stress, Fear, and the Presence of a Weapon
(826)
The Witness
(826)
Witness Age
(826)
Alcohol and Other Drugs
(826)
Witness Race, Gender, and Occupation
(826)
Witness Confidence
(827)
The Perpetrator
(827)
Disguise
(827)
Distinctiveness and Typicality of the Perpetrator
(827)
Familiarity Due to Repeated Viewing
(828)
Perpetrator Race and Gender
(828)
Obtaining Information from the Witness
(828)
The Cognitive Interview
(829)
Guided Memory
(829)
Generating Descriptions
(829)
Verbal Overshadowing
(829)
Postevent (Mis)Information
(830)
Mug Shot Collections and Composite Reproductions
(830)
Searching Mug Shot Collections
(830)
Making and Utilizing Composite Portraits
(830)
The Witness Identification
(831)
Measuring Lineup Fairness
(831)
Lineup Instruction Effects
(831)
Alternative Strategies: Blank Lineups, Sequential Lineups, and Relative Judgments
(832)
Lineups Involving Other Sensory Modes
(833)
Earwitness Identification
(833)
Multimode Lineups
(833)
Live vs Photographic Lineups
(833)
The Prosecution
(833)
Expert Testimony
(834)
Jurors’ ‘‘Common Knowledge’’ of Problems with Eyewitness Identification
(834)
Conclusion
(835)
See Also the Following Articles
(835)
Further Reading
(835)
Eyewitness Testimony, Pages 889-894, Linda J. Levine and Elizabeth F. Loftus
(836)
Glossary
(836)
Eyewitness Errors and Wrongful Convictions
(836)
The Malleability of Memory
(837)
The Misinformation Effect
(837)
Creating New Memories
(837)
Confidence and Memory Accuracy
(838)
Emotion and Memory
(838)
Facilitating Accurate Testimony
(840)
See Also the Following Articles
(840)
Further Reading
(840)
Section - F
(842)
Fair Treatment and Discrimination in Sport, Pages 1-9, Vikki Krane
(842)
Glossary
(842)
Introduction
(843)
Social Prejudice in Sport
(843)
Racism
(844)
Sexism
(844)
Heterosexism
(845)
Nationalism
(845)
Religious Intolerance
(846)
Interactions among Social Prejudices
(846)
Celebrating Difference through Sport
(846)
Social Equity in Sport
(847)
Opposing Social Prejudice through Sport
(847)
Reducing Racism in Sport
(847)
Reducing Sexism in Sport
(848)
Securing Child Welfare in Sport
(848)
Economic Reforms through Sport
(849)
Applied Sport Psychology and Social Justice
(849)
See Also the Following Articles
(850)
Further Reading
(850)
Family and Culture, Pages 11-22, James Georgas
(851)
Culture
(851)
Family Theories
(852)
Family
(853)
Definition of Family
(853)
Family Typology
(854)
The Nuclear Family: Separate or Part of the Extended Family?
(855)
Subsistence Patterns and Family Types
(856)
Kinship Patterns and Family Matters
(856)
Kinship Relationships
(856)
Residence
(856)
Descent
(857)
Marriage
(857)
Divorce
(858)
Family Roles and Power
(858)
Psychological Dimensions
(859)
Conclusion
(860)
See Also the Following Articles
(862)
Further Reading
(862)
Feminist Psychology, Pages 23-28, María Inés Winkler Müller
(863)
Glossary
(863)
Historical Background
(863)
Psychoanalysis and Feminist Psychology
(864)
Feminist Psychology and Moral Reasoning
(865)
A Feminist Ethic
(865)
The Feminist Perspective in the History of Psychology
(865)
Clinical Psychology and the Feminist Perspective
(866)
Community Psychology and the Feminist Perspective
(866)
Feminist Psychological Methodology
(867)
Conclusion
(867)
See Also the Following Articles
(867)
Further Reading
(867)
Forensic Mental Health Assessment, Pages 29-41, Kirk Heilbrun and Tammy Lander
(869)
Glossary
(869)
Introduction
(869)
Context and Principles of FMHA
(870)
Sources of Authority in Forensic Assessment
(870)
Courts, Statutes, and Case Law
(870)
Ethical Standards
(870)
Scientific Literature
(870)
Professional Literature
(870)
Principles of FMHA
(871)
Clinical-Legal Issues
(878)
Criminal
(878)
Civil
(878)
Juvenile/Family
(878)
Important Developments
(878)
Training
(878)
Research
(879)
Practice
(879)
Future Directions
(880)
Conclusions
(880)
See Also the Following Articles
(880)
Further Reading
(880)
Full-Service Schools, Pages 43-49, Adena B. Meyers and Mark E. Swerdlik
(882)
Glossary
(882)
Introduction
(882)
Rationale for Full-Service Schools
(883)
Theoretical Background
(883)
The Developing Child in Context
(883)
Child Outcomes of Concern
(884)
Full-Service Schools: Comprehensive, Integrated, and Preventative
(884)
Generalist Approach to Service Delivery
(884)
The Obstacle of Categorical Funding
(885)
Variations in Organizational Structure and Function
(885)
Psychologists in Full-Service Schools
(886)
Implications for Continuing Professional Development of Psychologists
(886)
What Is the Future of Full-Service Schools?
(887)
See Also the Following Articles
(887)
Further Reading
(887)
Section - G
(889)
Gender and Culture, Pages 51-63, Deborah L. Best and Dustin J. Foster
(889)
Glossary
(889)
Gender Development across Cultures
(890)
Distal Considerations
(890)
Socioeconomic Influences
(890)
Cultural Environments
(890)
Proximal Considerations
(891)
Biological Factors
(891)
Socialization of Girls and Boys
(891)
Cultural Differences in Role Socialization
(892)
Education
(892)
Behavioral Differences among Boys and Girls
(893)
General Patterns of Activity
(893)
General Behavioral Styles
(893)
Self-Esteem
(893)
Development of Gender Roles and Stereotypes
(894)
Sex Trait Stereotypes
(894)
Findings across Cultures
(894)
Theories of Gender-Related Learning
(895)
Social Learning
(895)
Cognitive Development
(895)
Gender at the Adult Level
(896)
Sex Role Ideology
(896)
Gender Stereotypes
(896)
Masculinity/Femininity of Self-Concepts
(897)
Relations between Women and Men
(898)
Mate Preferences
(898)
Romantic Love
(898)
Harassment and Rape
(899)
Gender Differences at the Cultural Level
(899)
Masculinity and Work-Related Values
(899)
Gender Division of Labor
(899)
Conclusion
(900)
See Also the Following Articles
(900)
Further Reading
(900)
Gender and Education, Pages 65-69, Linda M. Raffaele Mendez
(902)
Glossary
(902)
What Is Gender Equity?
(902)
Gender Equity in Schools: Issues of Concern
(903)
Concerns for Girls
(903)
Concerns for Boys
(903)
Increasing Gender Equity: Strategies for Educators
(904)
Classroom Dynamics/Instructional Style
(904)
The Curriculum
(904)
Behavior Management/Intervention
(905)
Summary
(905)
See Also the Following Articles
(906)
Further Reading
(906)
Gender, Overview, Pages 71-84, Florence L. Denmark
(907)
Glossary
(907)
The Difference between Gender and Sex
(908)
The Construction of Gender
(908)
Gender Acquisition in Childhood
(909)
The Harmful Effects of Gender Stereotyping
(910)
Sex Discrimination and Sexism
(910)
Sex Discrimination
(910)
Sexism
(910)
Suggestions for Minimizing Harmful Stereotypes
(911)
Gender’s Sexual Component
(911)
Cultural Views of Sexuality
(913)
Homosexuality
(913)
Transgendered Individuals
(914)
Homophobia
(914)
Marriage and Parenthood
(915)
Marriage
(915)
Parenthood
(916)
Single Parenthood
(916)
Gay and Lesbian Parents
(917)
Gender and Old Age
(917)
Gender and Medical Concerns
(917)
Gender and the Psychological Experience of Aging
(917)
External Perceptions of Aging
(918)
Ageism
(918)
Feminism
(918)
Suggestions for Applied Psychology
(919)
See Also the Following Articles
(919)
Further Reading
(919)
Gender Role Development, Pages 85-90, Joan C. Chrisler
(921)
Glossary
(921)
Toward a Modern Individualist Society
(921)
Learning to Conform to One’s Gender
(922)
Acquisition of Gender Identity
(922)
Media Influences
(923)
Division Along Gender Lines
(923)
Active Participation in Gender Socialization
(923)
Shaping Future Women and Men
(924)
See Also the Following Articles
(925)
Further Reading
(925)
Gerontology, Overview, Pages 91-94, Peter A. Lichtenberg
(927)
The Merging of Applied and Clinical Geropsychology
(927)
The Increasing Cultural Heterogeneity of the Aging Population
(928)
Knowledge Relating to Mental and Behavioral Health Disorders in Older Adults
(928)
Increasing Use of Applied Geropsychology in Major Life Transitions
(929)
Principles to Guide Future Activities in Applied Geropsychology
(929)
Principle 1: Cohort Considerations
(929)
Principle 2: Conceptual Frameworks
(930)
Principle 3: Comorbidity
(930)
See Also the Following Articles
(930)
Further Reading
(930)
Gestalt Therapy, Pages 95-104, Stephen G. Zahm and Eva K. Gold
(931)
Glossary
(931)
Description of Treatment
(931)
Philosophical Foundations
(931)
Goal of Treatment/Theory of Change
(932)
Therapy Method
(932)
Theoretical Bases
(934)
Applications and Exclusions
(936)
Empirical Studies
(936)
Case Illustration
(937)
Kim
(937)
Outcome
(939)
Conclusion
(940)
See Also the Following Articles
(940)
Further Reading
(940)
Gifted Students, Pages 105-108, John F. Feldhusen
(941)
Glossary
(941)
Introduction
(941)
Defining Gifted
(942)
Why Separate Students?
(942)
Identification and Nurturing
(942)
Worldwide Support
(943)
Literature Regarding Gifted Students
(943)
Current Research
(943)
See Also the Following Articles
(943)
Further Reading
(943)
Goal Setting and Achievement Motivation in Sport, Pages 109-119, Joan L. Duda
(945)
Glossary
(945)
Goal Setting in Sport
(946)
Basic Tenets of Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory
(946)
Testing of Locke’s Theory in Sport/The Physical Domain
(947)
Limitations of Sport Goal-Setting Work
(948)
The Meaning of Goals
(948)
Basic Tenets of the Achievement Goal Framework
(949)
Achievement Goals, Discrete Goals, and Goal-Setting Styles
(950)
Potential Mechanisms Influencing the Goal Setting-Performance Relationship
(951)
Additional Considerations and Future Directions
(952)
See Also the Following Articles
(953)
Further Reading
(953)
Group Counseling, Pages 121-126, Janice L. DeLucia-Waack
(956)
Glossary
(956)
Introduction
(956)
Definition of Group Counseling
(957)
Therapeutic Factors Theory and Research
(957)
Effective Interventions Theory and Research
(959)
Considerations
(960)
Conclusion
(961)
See Also the Following Articles
(961)
Further Reading
(961)
Group Dynamics in Sport, Pages 127-136, Packianathan Chelladurai
(962)
Glossary
(962)
Introduction
(962)
Definition of a Sport Team
(963)
Unique Attributes of Sport Teams as Groups
(963)
Purposes of Participation in Sport
(964)
Task Types in Sport
(964)
Dependence
(964)
Variability
(964)
Measures of Group Performance
(965)
Subjective Evaluation
(965)
Zero-Sum Nature of Competitions
(965)
Team Performances in Independent Sports
(965)
Perceptual Measures of Performance
(965)
Cohesion in Sport Teams
(965)
Multiple Dimensions of Cohesion
(966)
The Group Environment Questionnaire
(966)
Correlates of Cohesion
(966)
The Multidimensional Model of Leadership
(967)
States or Aspects of Leader Behavior
(967)
The Leadership Scale for Sports
(967)
Correlates of Leadership
(968)
The Mediational Model of Leadership
(968)
Factors Influencing Leadership Dynamics
(969)
The Coaching Behavior Assessment System
(969)
Correlates of Leadership
(969)
Commentary on Leadership Studies in Sport
(970)
Motivational Climate
(970)
See Also the Following Articles
(971)
Further Reading
(971)
Groups, Productivity within, Pages 137-142, Athena Xenikou and Alexandra Han
(972)
Glossary
(972)
Introduction
(972)
Social Facilitation/Inhibition
(973)
Steiner’s Theory of Group Productivity
(973)
Social Loafing
(974)
Motivation Gains in Groups
(975)
Implications for Groups at Work
(976)
See Also the Following Articles
(977)
Further Reading
(977)
Groupthink, Pages 143-151, Ramon J. Aldag and Sally Riggs Fuller
(978)
Glossary
(978)
The Groupthink Model Defined and Explained
(978)
History and Impact of the Groupthink Phenomenon
(980)
Evidence Regarding the Groupthink Phenomenon
(980)
Bases for Groupthink’s Appeal
(982)
Implicit Assumptions
(982)
Implicit Theories of Group
(983)
Illusory Correlation
(983)
Framing
(983)
Implications and Suggestions for Future Research and Theory
(984)
Prescriptions for Effective Group Problem Solving
(985)
See Also the Following Articles
(986)
Further Reading
(986)
Section - H
(987)
Health and Culture, Pages 153-157, George D. Bishop
(987)
Glossary
(987)
The Concept of Culture
(987)
Culture and Health-Related Cognition
(988)
Variation
(988)
The Basic Nature of Health and Illness
(988)
Beliefs about Anatomy and Physiology
(988)
Concepts and Terminology
(988)
Underlying Structure of Illness Representations
(988)
Implications
(989)
Culture and Health-Related Behavior
(989)
Behavior and Disease Risk
(989)
Help-Seeking
(990)
Culture and Physiological Responses
(990)
Integrating Culture into Health Psychology
(990)
Conclusion
(991)
See Also the Following Articles
(991)
Further Reading
(991)
Health Promotion in Schools, Pages 159-166, Ellis P. Copeland and Franci Crepeau-Hobson
(992)
Glossary
(992)
Introduction
(993)
Child and Adolescent Health Concerns
(993)
Physical Health
(993)
Drugs and Alcohol
(994)
Sexual Health
(994)
Mental Health
(995)
Health Promotion
(996)
Coordinated School Health Programs
(997)
Positive Youth Development
(998)
Summary
(998)
See Also the Following Articles
(999)
Further Reading
(999)
Health Psychology, Cross-Cultural, Pages 167-178, Malcolm MacLachlan and Mesfin Samuel Mulatu
(1000)
Glossary
(1000)
Concepts and Definitions
(1001)
Theoretical Foundations
(1002)
Cross-Cultural Health Psychology in Practice
(1003)
Risk Factors, Determinants, and Prevention
(1004)
Disease Management and Impact Alleviation
(1005)
Addressing Social Inequalities and Population Health
(1007)
Current Issues and Future Directions
(1008)
See Also the Following Articles
(1010)
Further Reading
(1010)
History of Applied Psychology, Overview, Pages 179-196, Helio Carpintero
(1012)
Glossary
(1012)
Introduction
(1012)
Early Landmarks in Applied Research
(1013)
Clinical Psychology
(1013)
Educational Psychology
(1014)
Early Work in Organizational Settings
(1015)
Early Testing
(1016)
Interactions across Specialties
(1017)
The Institutionalization of the Field: Emerging Societies of Applied Psychology
(1018)
Significant Problems in Early Applied Research
(1019)
Inborn versus Learned (Acquired) Abilities
(1019)
Types of Measurement and Types of Diagnosis
(1020)
Studying People or Analyzing Situations
(1020)
Intervention versus Goal-Oriented Research
(1021)
The Influence of World War II (1939-1945)
(1021)
Theory and Practice: The Influence of the Era of Schools
(1022)
Applied Psychology in the Second Half of the 20th Century
(1024)
Ecological Psychology
(1025)
Traffic Safety Psychology
(1025)
Organizational Psychology
(1025)
Health Psychology
(1026)
Law Psychology
(1026)
Other Specialties
(1026)
General Trends
(1027)
See Also the Following Articles
(1028)
Further Reading
(1028)
Holland´s Theory (Vocational Personality Types), Pages 197-200, W. Bruce Walsh
(1030)
Glossary
(1030)
The Personality Types
(1030)
The Model Environments
(1031)
Person-Environment Congruence
(1031)
Consistency, Differentiation, and Identity
(1032)
Research
(1032)
Summary
(1032)
See Also the Following Articles
(1033)
Further Reading
(1033)
Home-School Collaboration, Pages 201-208, Richard J. CowanSusan M. Swearer and Susan M. Sheridan
(1034)
Glossary
(1034)
Home-School Collaboration Defined
(1034)
Background and History of Home-School Collaboration
(1035)
Traditional Family Involvement in Education
(1035)
Partnering With Families in Education: A Modern Approach to Collaboration
(1035)
Potential Benefits of Home-School Partnerships
(1036)
Factors Influencing Home-School Collaboration
(1036)
Educational Legislation
(1037)
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(1037)
No Child Left Behind
(1037)
Home- and Family-Related Factors
(1038)
School-Related Factors
(1039)
Community-Related Factors
(1039)
Approaches to Fostering and Maintaining Home-School Collaboration
(1040)
Underlying Assumptions, Roles, and Responsibilities
(1040)
How to Involve Families in Education
(1040)
Conclusion
(1040)
See Also the Following Articles
(1041)
Further Reading
(1041)
Homophobia, Pages 209-214, Douglas C. Kimmel
(1042)
Glossary
(1042)
Heterosexist Bias in Western Culture
(1043)
Definition of Sexual Prejudice
(1043)
Internalized Homophobia
(1044)
Social Attitudes, Physiological Arousal, and Homophobia
(1044)
Gender Differences in Prejudice: Homosexuals, Bisexuals, and Transgendered Persons
(1045)
Education, Civil Rights, and Primary Prevention of Hate Crimes
(1046)
See Also the Following Articles
(1046)
Further Reading
(1046)
Homosexuality, Pages 215-225, Bertram J. Cohler and Phillip L. Hammack
(1048)
Glossary
(1048)
Introduction
(1048)
History, Culture, and the Problem of Defining Homosexuality
(1049)
Understanding Same-Sex Desire: The Search for Biological Origins
(1050)
The Four Areas of Biological Study of Homosexuality
(1050)
Problems Posed by Biological Study of the Origins of Homosexuality
(1051)
Realization of a Gay or Lesbian Identity and the Life Course
(1052)
Childhood and Adolescence
(1053)
Adulthood and Aging
(1054)
Homosexuality and Society
(1054)
Mental Health
(1054)
Social Stigma and Development
(1055)
Homosexuality and the AIDS Pandemic
(1055)
‘‘Normal’’ and Beyond: Gay and Lesbian Relationships, Marriage, and Parenthood
(1056)
Conclusion
(1058)
See Also the Following Articles
(1058)
Further Reading
(1058)
Human Rights, Pages 227-236, Willem Doise
(1059)
Glossary
(1059)
Institutional Definition of Human Rights
(1059)
The Ambiguous Message of Social Psychology
(1060)
Human Rights as Normative Social Representations
(1062)
Research Findings
(1063)
Putting Things in Perspective
(1066)
Further Reading
(1067)
Humor and Well-Being, Pages 237-242, James Rotton
(1069)
Glossary
(1069)
Multiple Meanings of Humor
(1069)
Mechanisms: Possible Mediators and Moderators
(1070)
Methodological Issues
(1071)
Trait Humor, Distress, and Longevity
(1072)
Humor and Physical Health
(1072)
Conclusions
(1073)
See Also the Following Articles
(1073)
Further Reading
(1073)
Hypnosis, Pages 243-248, John F. Kihlstrom
(1075)
Glossary
(1075)
Hypnotizability and Its Correlates
(1076)
Pain and Analgesia
(1076)
Other Clinical Applications
(1077)
Sensorimotor Performance Enhancement
(1078)
Learning and Memory
(1078)
Risks of Hypnosis
(1079)
Conclusion
(1079)
Acknowledgments
(1080)
See Also the Following Articles
(1080)
Further Reading
(1080)
Section - I
(1081)
Ideological Orientation and Values, Pages 249-258, Hans De Witte
(1081)
Glossary
(1081)
Ideology and Values: Definitions
(1082)
Values and Value Orientations in Political Psychology
(1083)
Kohn: Conformity versus Self-Direction and Its Relationship with Social Class
(1083)
Inglehart: Materialism versus Post-Materialism
(1083)
Rokeach and Braithwaite on the Political Importance of Values
(1084)
Schwartz and Triandis: More Encompassing Value Orientations
(1084)
On the Dimensionality of (Conservative) Ideology
(1086)
Two Dimensions of Conservatism
(1087)
Relationship with Values and Value Orientations
(1087)
View on Human Nature and Society, and Relationship with Social Groups
(1088)
Political Consequences of Ideology and Value Orientations
(1088)
See Also the Following Articles
(1089)
Further Reading
(1090)
Indecision, Vocational, Pages 259-262, Paul J. Hartung
(1091)
Glossary
(1091)
Perspectives on Indecision
(1091)
A Brief Historical Synopsis: From Plato to Parsons to the Present
(1092)
Vocational Indecision: The Positivist Perspective
(1092)
A Dichotomy
(1092)
A Unidimensional Continuum
(1092)
A Multidimensional Construct
(1092)
Indecision Versus Indecisiveness
(1093)
Vocational Indecision: The Phenomenological Perspective
(1093)
Future Directions
(1093)
See Also the Following Articles
(1094)
Further Reading
(1094)
Indigenous Psychologies, Pages 263-269, Uichol Kim and Young-Shin Park
(1095)
Glossary
(1095)
Historical Background
(1095)
What Is Indigenous Psychology?
(1096)
Two Approaches in Indigenous Psychology
(1097)
How Is Research Done?
(1097)
An Example: Educational Attainment
(1098)
Future Directions
(1099)
See Also the Following Articles
(1100)
Further Reading
(1100)
Industrial-Organizational Psychology across Cultures, Pages 271-283, Zeynep Aycan
(1102)
Glossary
(1102)
Introduction
(1102)
The Role of Culture in Industrial and Organizational Psychology
(1103)
Cross-Cultural Approaches to Work Motivation
(1103)
Cross-Cultural Differences in What Motivates Employees at Work: Content Theories
(1104)
Cross-Cultural Differences in How Employees Are Motivated at Work: Process Theories
(1104)
The Culture-Based Model of Work Motivation
(1105)
Cross-Cultural Variations in Human Resource Management Practices
(1106)
Staffing: Recruitment and Selection
(1106)
Performance Management: Criteria, Evaluation, and Development
(1107)
The Culture-Based Model of Human Resource Management
(1108)
Managing Cultural Diversity
(1109)
Expatriate Management
(1109)
Women’s Career Development
(1110)
Multicultural Teams
(1110)
Culture and Work Attitudes
(1111)
Job Satisfaction
(1111)
Organizational Commitment and Organizational Citizenship Behavior
(1112)
Organizational Justice
(1112)
See Also the Following Articles
(1114)
Further Reading
(1114)
Industrial -Organizational Psychology, Overview, Pages 285-292, Sheldon Zedeck
(1115)
Definition
(1115)
History
(1116)
Contents of the Section
(1118)
Development Phase
(1118)
Selection Phase
(1119)
Maintenance Phase
(1119)
Other Topics
(1120)
Future Trends
(1120)
Conclusion
(1121)
See Also the Following Articles
(1121)
Further Reading
(1121)
Injury in Sport, Pages 293-297, Albert J. Petitpas and Britton W. Brewer
(1123)
Glossary
(1123)
Introduction
(1123)
Psychosocial Risk Factors for Sport Injury
(1124)
Psychological Effects of Sport Injury
(1124)
Sport Injury Prevention
(1126)
Psychological Interventions in Sport Injury Rehabilitation
(1126)
See Also the Following Articles
(1127)
Further Reading
(1127)
Intelligence and Culture, Pages 299-306, Fons J. R. van de Vijver
(1128)
Glossary
(1128)
Culture and Intelligence: An Emerging Field
(1129)
Three Views on the Relationship between Intelligence and Culture
(1129)
Relativist Viewpoint
(1129)
Absolutist Viewpoint
(1130)
Universalist Viewpoint
(1130)
The Measurement of Intelligence in a Cross-Cultural Context
(1131)
Formal Versus Informal Studies of Intelligence
(1132)
Everyday Definitions of Intelligence
(1133)
Conclusion
(1134)
See Also the Following Articles
(1134)
Further Reading
(1134)
Intelligence Assessment, Pages 307-314, Roberto Colom
(1136)
Glossary
(1136)
What is Intelligence?
(1136)
The Measurement of Intelligence
(1137)
Intelligence Assessment Tools
(1138)
The Wechsler Scales
(1138)
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised
(1138)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition
(1139)
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition
(1139)
Cognitive Assessment System
(1139)
Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test
(1140)
Woodcock-Johnson III
(1140)
Interpretation: Some Words
(1141)
Recent Advances
(1141)
See Also the Following Articles
(1142)
Further Reading
(1142)
Intelligence, Emotional, Pages 315-319, Cary Cherniss
(1144)
Glossary
(1144)
Why the Interest in Emotional Intelligence?
(1144)
Historical Roots of and Precursors to the Concept
(1145)
Various Models of Emotional Intelligence
(1145)
Measurement of Emotional Intelligence
(1146)
The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Personality
(1147)
The Contribution of Emotional Intelligence to Health, Work, and Educational Adjustment
(1147)
Can Emotional Intelligence Be Taught?
(1148)
See Also the Following Articles
(1148)
Further Reading
(1148)
Intelligence in Humans, Pages 321-328, Robert J. Sternberg
(1149)
Glossary
(1149)
Theories of Intelligence
(1150)
Implicit Theories
(1150)
Psychometric Theories
(1150)
Cognitive Theories
(1151)
Cognitive-Contextual Theories
(1151)
Biological Theories
(1152)
Development of Intelligence
(1152)
Piaget’s Theories on Intelligence
(1153)
Post-Piagetian Theories
(1153)
Vygotsky’s Theories on Intelligence
(1153)
Measuring Intelligence
(1153)
Early Historical Background
(1153)
The IQ Test
(1154)
The Distribution of IQ Scores
(1154)
The Heritability and Malleability of Intelligence
(1154)
See Also the Following Articles
(1155)
Further Reading
(1155)
Intentional Behavior, Pages 329-334, Martin Fishbein
(1157)
Glossary
(1157)
Defining Behavior
(1157)
Defining Intentions
(1158)
Intentions as Predictors of Behavior
(1158)
The Principle of Correspondence
(1159)
Moderators of the Intention-Behavior Relation
(1159)
An Integrated Theoretical Model
(1159)
Attitudes, Perceived Norms, and Self-Efficacy
(1160)
Determinants of Behavior
(1160)
Determinants of Intention
(1161)
Determinants of Attitudes, Norms, and Self-Efficacy
(1161)
The Role of Distal Variables
(1161)
Conclusion
(1162)
See Also the Following Articles
(1162)
Further Reading
(1162)
Intergroup Relations and Culture, Pages 335-348, Karmela Liebkind
(1163)
Glossary
(1163)
In the Crossroads of Various Research Traditions
(1164)
Culture: The Missing Link in Intergroup Relations
(1164)
What Is Culture?
(1164)
Culture in the Research on Intergroup Bias
(1165)
Intercultural Contact as Interpersonal Adjustment
(1165)
Intercultural Relations and Sociocultural Adaptation
(1165)
The Social Psychology of Intergroup Bias
(1166)
Individual- and Group-Level Explanations
(1166)
Social Identity Theory
(1167)
The Role of Perceived Threat and Unequal Position in Intergroup Bias
(1168)
Identification and Strategies for Escaping an Unsatisfactory Social Identity
(1168)
Culture as a Moderator of Intergroup Bias
(1169)
Individualist and Collectivist Cultures and Individuals
(1169)
Empirical Evidence and Limits of Generalizability
(1169)
The Role of History and Social Context in Intergroup Bias
(1170)
History and Social Context: Neglected Factors in Research
(1170)
The Special Circumstances of Minority Groups
(1170)
The Special Circumstances of Immigrants
(1171)
Is Intergroup Bias Ubiquitous?
(1171)
The Influence of Social and Cultural Norms on the Expression of Prejudice
(1172)
The Reduction of Intergroup Bias
(1172)
The Contact Hypothesis
(1172)
Mechanisms by Which Contact Reduces Intergroup Bias: The Role of Category Salience
(1173)
The Decategorization and Recategorization Models for Reducing Intergroup Bias
(1174)
Integrating Different Models of Contact
(1174)
Realistic Goals for Real-Life Intergroup Relations
(1175)
See Also the Following Articles
(1176)
Further Reading
(1176)
International Classification of Diseases (WHO), Pages 349-353, Jesús Rodríguez-Marín
(1177)
Introduction
(1177)
International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th Revision
(1178)
ICD-10’s Chapter 5: Mental and Behavioral Disorders
(1179)
Phenomenological Rigor, Consistency, and Diagnostic Stability of ICD-10 Psychiatric Diagnoses
(1180)
Clinical Utility of ICD-10
(1180)
Comparison between ICD-10 and DSM-IV
(1180)
Collaborating Centers for Classification of Diseases and Procedures for ICD-10 Updating
(1181)
See Also the Following Articles
(1181)
Further Reading
(1181)
International Conflict, Pages 355-367, Herbert C. Kelman
(1182)
Glossary
(1182)
International Conflict as a Contemporary Problem
(1183)
Social-Psychological Propositions about the Nature of International Conflict
(1183)
Conflict as a Process Driven by Collective Needs and Fears
(1183)
Conflict as an Intersocietal Process
(1184)
Conflict as a Multifaceted Process of Mutual Influence
(1185)
Conflict as an Interactive Process with an Escalatory, Self-Perpetuating Dynamic
(1186)
Psychological Processes Promoting Conflict
(1187)
Normative Processes
(1187)
Formation of Collective Moods
(1187)
Mobilization of Group Loyalties
(1188)
Decision-Making Processes
(1188)
Negotiation and Bargaining Processes
(1189)
Structural and Psychological Commitments
(1189)
Perceptual Processes
(1189)
Mirror Image Formation
(1190)
Resistance to Contradictory Information
(1190)
Implications for Conflict Resolution
(1191)
See Also the Following Articles
(1193)
Further Reading
(1193)
Internet Counseling, Pages 369-378, Azy Barak
(1195)
Glossary
(1195)
Introduction
(1196)
Historical Development
(1196)
The Practice of Internet Counseling
(1197)
Research on Internet Counseling
(1200)
Ethical, Professional, and Legal Considerations
(1201)
Limitations and Problems
(1202)
Summary
(1203)
See Also the Following Articles
(1203)
Further Reading
(1203)
Interpersonal Attraction, Pages 379-385, Carlos Yela
(1205)
Glossary
(1205)
Introduction
(1206)
What Is IA and What Generates It?
(1206)
Causes and Explanations for IA: Theories of Social Psychology and Levels of Analysis
(1207)
Species
(1208)
Culture
(1208)
Society
(1208)
Interpersonal Interactions
(1209)
Individual
(1209)
Applications of the Psychology of IA
(1209)
See Also the Following Articles
(1211)
Further Reading
(1211)
Interpersonal Behavior and Culture, Pages 387-395, John Adamopoulos
(1212)
Glossary
(1212)
The Interface of Culture and Interpersonal Behavior
(1213)
Theoretical Approaches to Culture and Interpersonal Behavior
(1213)
Structural Models
(1213)
Cultural Syndromes
(1214)
Utilitarian Approaches
(1215)
Behavioral Prediction Models
(1215)
Resource Exchange Theories
(1216)
Sociality
(1216)
Ecocultural Framework
(1217)
Thematic Approaches
(1217)
Social Norms and Conformity
(1217)
Prosocial Behavior
(1218)
Aggression
(1218)
Interpersonal Relationships
(1218)
Applications: Cross-Cultural Interaction
(1219)
Conclusion
(1220)
See Also the Following Articles
(1220)
Further Reading
(1220)
Interpersonal Conflict, Pages 397-409, Panos S. Kordoutis
(1221)
Glossary
(1221)
Understanding and Managing Conflict in Interpersonal Relationships
(1222)
Relationship Features and Psychological Processes Involved in Conflict
(1223)
Relationship Structure and Social Comparison
(1223)
Interference
(1224)
Relative Deprivation
(1225)
Experiencing and Expressing Conflict: The Role of Qualitative Relationship Features
(1225)
Overview of the Conflict Mechanism: Directives and Keys to Managing Conflict
(1227)
Managing Conflict
(1229)
Interpersonal Skills in Managing Conflict
(1230)
Active Listening
(1230)
Empathy
(1230)
Assertion
(1230)
Avoiding Dispositional Attributions
(1230)
Constructive Feedback
(1230)
Problem Solving
(1230)
Third-Party Intervention
(1231)
Adjudication
(1231)
Arbitration
(1231)
Fact Finding
(1231)
Conciliation
(1231)
Mediation
(1231)
Conclusion
(1232)
See Also the Following Articles
(1233)
Further Reading
(1233)
Interpersonal Perception, Pages 411-413, David A. Kenny
(1234)
Glossary
(1234)
Types of Perceptions
(1234)
Relations among Perceptions
(1235)
Statistical Analysis
(1235)
See Also the Following Articles
(1235)
Further Reading
(1235)
Interrogation and Interviewing, Pages 415-426, Aldert Vrij
(1237)
Glossary
(1237)
Introduction
(1237)
The Problem: The Interviewee Does Not Provide Enough Information
(1238)
The Problem with Further Questioning: Suggestibility
(1238)
The Solution: Questioning Techniques to Minimize Suggestibility
(1238)
The Solution: Interview Techniques to Enhance Information Recall-The Cognitive Interview
(1239)
The Problem: Persuading Reluctant Interviewees to Talk
(1239)
The Reid Nine Steps of Interrogation
(1240)
Concerns with the Reid Technique
(1241)
The Solution: Ethical Interviewing
(1242)
False Confessions
(1243)
Types of False Confessions
(1243)
Voluntary False Confessions
(1243)
Coerced Compliant Confessions
(1243)
Coerced Internalized False Confessions
(1243)
How to Detect False Confessions
(1244)
Detecting Deceit
(1244)
Common Pitfalls in Detecting Deceit
(1245)
Techniques to Improve People’s Ability to Detect Deceit
(1246)
Conclusion
(1247)
See Also the Following Articles
(1247)
Further Reading
(1247)
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in Sport, Pages 427-435, Robert J. Vallerand
(1249)
Glossary
(1249)
Introduction
(1249)
Definitions and Assessment
(1250)
On Motivation
(1250)
On Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation and Amotivation
(1250)
Intrinsic Motivation
(1250)
Extrinsic Motivation
(1250)
Amotivation
(1251)
Assessment of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation and Amotivation
(1251)
On the Determinants of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
(1252)
Where Does Situational Motivation Come From?
(1252)
The Task
(1252)
The Environment
(1253)
Individual Differences
(1253)
On the Determinants of Contextual Motivation
(1254)
Motivational Determinants at the Global Level
(1254)
On Motivational Outcomes
(1255)
Motivation Causes Outcomes
(1255)
Outcomes as a Function of the Various Types of Motivation
(1255)
Outcomes as a Function of Levels of Generality
(1255)
Interventions
(1255)
Conclusion
(1256)
See Also the Following Articles
(1256)
Further Reading
(1256)
Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination, Pages 437-448, Edward L. Deci
(1258)
Glossary
(1258)
Introduction
(1259)
Extrinsic Motivation Versus Intrinsic Motivation
(1259)
Extrinsic Motivation and Behaviorism
(1259)
Intrinsic Motivation
(1260)
The Interaction of Extrinsic Motivation and Intrinsic Motivation
(1261)
Reward Effects
(1261)
Other External Events
(1261)
Performance Feedback
(1261)
Interpersonal Contexts
(1261)
Summary
(1262)
Intrinsic Motivation and Outcomes
(1262)
Extrinsic Motivation
(1263)
Internalization of Extrinsic Motivation
(1263)
Internalization in Social Contexts
(1264)
Application of Research on Self-Determination
(1265)
Autonomy Support in Parenting
(1265)
Autonomy Support in Education
(1266)
Autonomy Support in the Workplace
(1267)
Autonomy Support in Health Care
(1267)
Autonomy Support in Athletics
(1268)
Summary and Conclusions
(1268)
See Also the Following Articles
(1269)
Further Reading
(1269)
Section - J
(1270)
Job Analysis, Design, and Evaluation, Pages 449-456, Robert Smither
(1270)
Glossary
(1270)
Job Analysis
(1271)
Job Design
(1272)
Job Design and Worker Motivation
(1273)
The Two-Factor Model
(1273)
Sociotechnical Systems
(1274)
The Job Characteristics Model
(1275)
Job Evaluation
(1275)
Other Issues in Job Analysis, Design, and Evaluation
(1276)
Individual Differences
(1276)
Organization Development
(1276)
Teams
(1277)
See Also the Following Articles
(1277)
Further Reading
(1277)
Job Search, Pages 457-465, Alan M. Saks
(1278)
Glossary
(1278)
The Job Search Process
(1279)
Job Search Research
(1280)
Coping with Job Loss and Reemployment
(1280)
Job Search Interventions
(1280)
Job Search and Voluntary Turnover
(1281)
Antecedents and Consequences of Job Search
(1281)
Job Search Behaviors
(1281)
Job Information Sources
(1281)
Job Search Intensity
(1282)
Job Search Effort
(1282)
Job Search Information
(1282)
Antecedents of Job Search Behaviors
(1282)
Demographic/Biographical Variables
(1282)
Individual Difference Variables
(1283)
Situational Variables
(1283)
Consequences of Job Search Behaviors
(1284)
Job Search Outcomes
(1284)
Employment Outcomes
(1284)
Psychological Well-Being
(1284)
Employment Quality
(1285)
Conclusion
(1285)
See Also the Following Articles
(1285)
Further Reading
(1285)
Job Stress, Pages 467-474, James Campbell Quick, Marilyn Macik-Frey and Debra L. Nelson
(1287)
Glossary
(1287)
Introduction
(1287)
Causes of Job Stress
(1288)
Consequences of Job Stress
(1288)
Modifiers of the Stress Response
(1289)
Measures of Job Stress
(1290)
Job Stress Survey
(1290)
NIOSH Generic Job Stress Questionnaire
(1290)
Occupational Stress Inventory
(1290)
Pressure Management Indicator
(1291)
Early Warning Signs of Strain
(1291)
Preventive Stress Management
(1291)
Implications for Executives and Leaders
(1293)
See Also the Following Articles
(1294)
Further Reading
(1294)
Job Stress and Burnout, Pages 475-483, Philip Dewe
(1295)
Glossary
(1295)
Introduction
(1295)
Defining Job Stress
(1296)
Models of Job Stress
(1296)
Causes of Job Stress
(1297)
Coping with Job Stress
(1299)
Burnout
(1300)
Other Job Stress Responses
(1301)
Job Stress Interventions
(1301)
See Also the Following Articles
(1302)
Further Reading
(1302)
Jury Decision Making, Pages 485-495, Stephanie Albertson, Erin J. Farley and Valerie P. Hans
(1304)
Glossary
(1304)
Introduction
(1304)
Decision Making of Individual Jurors
(1305)
Individual Differences among Jurors
(1305)
Impact of Juror Demographic Characteristics
(1305)
Role of Juror Attitudes
(1306)
Psychology of Persuasion
(1306)
Applications
(1307)
Voir Dire
(1307)
Jury Consulting and Jury Selection
(1307)
Limitations of Scientific Jury Selection
(1308)
Ethical Issues
(1308)
The Psychology of Evidence
(1308)
Psychological Models of Juror Decision Making
(1308)
Bayesian Models
(1308)
Information Integration
(1308)
Story Model
(1308)
Perceptions of Evidence
(1309)
General Evidence
(1309)
Eyewitness Evidence
(1309)
Expert Evidence
(1310)
Applications
(1310)
Promotion of Juror Competence through Trial Reform
(1310)
The Jury as a Group
(1310)
Group Decision Making: Theory and Research on Group Performance
(1310)
Decision-Making Process
(1310)
Persuasion during Deliberation
(1311)
Hung Juries
(1311)
Applications
(1311)
Impact of Jury Size and Decision Rule
(1312)
Anonymous Juries
(1312)
Active Jury Reforms
(1313)
Comparative Research on Juries
(1313)
Conclusion
(1313)
See Also the Following Articles
(1313)
Further Reading
(1314)
Section - L
(1315)
Labor Turnover, Pages 497-505, Peter W. Hom
(1315)
Glossary
(1315)
Introduction
(1316)
Identifying Who Quits
(1316)
Demographic and Personality Correlates of Turnover
(1316)
Performance-Turnover Relationship
(1316)
Theories about Why Employees Quit
(1317)
Theories about Intermediate Linkages between Job Dissatisfaction and Quits
(1317)
Structural Determinants of Turnover
(1317)
Unfolding Model
(1319)
Job Embeddedness
(1320)
Methods for Controlling Turnover
(1320)
Employee Selection
(1321)
Interventions for Reducing Turnover
(1321)
Conclusion
(1322)
See Also the Following Articles
(1322)
Further Reading
(1322)
Leadership and Culture, Pages 507-518, Roya Ayman
(1324)
Glossary
(1324)
Introduction
(1325)
Culture
(1325)
Definition of Culture
(1325)
Cross-Cultural Methodology
(1325)
Leadership Research across Cultures
(1326)
Etic Approach: The Leader’s Characteristics
(1326)
Etic Approach: Contingency Approach to Leadership
(1329)
Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness
(1329)
Normative Model of Decision Making
(1329)
Quasi-Emic and Emic Approaches: Implicit Leadership Theory
(1330)
Quasi-Emic Approach
(1331)
Emic Approach to Leadership
(1331)
New Topics in Culture and Leadership
(1332)
Multicultural Research Teams
(1332)
Cultural Collision and Leadership
(1333)
Global versus International Leadership
(1334)
Summary and Conclusion
(1334)
See Also the Following Articles
(1334)
Further Reading
(1335)
Learning, Pages 519-526, Gary D. Phye
(1336)
Glossary
(1336)
Academic Learning
(1337)
Learning as Enduring Change
(1337)
Defining Elements
(1337)
Types of Personal Knowledge Construction
(1338)
Declarative Knowledge
(1338)
The Role of Practice
(1339)
Procedural Knowledge
(1340)
Student Self-Efficacy: A Sense of Competency
(1340)
Strategic Knowledge
(1341)
Implications for Knowledge Assessment
(1341)
Developmental and Individual Differences
(1342)
Conclusion
(1343)
See Also the Following Articles
(1343)
Further Reading
(1343)
Learning Disabilities, Pages 527-536, William D. Tilly, III
(1344)
Glossary
(1344)
History of Learning Disabilities
(1344)
Definition
(1345)
Historical Definitions
(1345)
United States Legal Definition
(1345)
Converging Professional Perspectives on Definition
(1346)
Proposed Future Definitions
(1347)
Treatments for Learning Disabilities
(1349)
Treatments That Do Not Have Widespread Research Support
(1349)
Modality Instruction
(1349)
Psycholinguistic Training
(1349)
Perceptual Motor Training
(1349)
Placement in Special Education
(1350)
Characteristics of Generally Effective Instructional Interventions
(1350)
Teacher Organization
(1350)
Student Engagement
(1350)
Opportunities to Respond
(1350)
Overlearning
(1350)
Treatments for Learning Disabilities with General Research Support
(1350)
Early Intervention
(1351)
Direct Instruction
(1351)
Reading Comprehension Strategy Instruction
(1351)
Behavior Modification
(1351)
Peer Tutoring
(1352)
Progress Monitoring, Graphing, and Data-Based Decision Making
(1352)
Maximizing Results for Persons with Learning Disabilities
(1352)
See Also the Following Articles
(1353)
Further Reading
(1353)
Learning Styles and Approaches to Studying, Pages 537-542, Noel Entwistle and Elizabeth Peterson
(1354)
Glossary
(1354)
Historical and Conceptual Introduction
(1354)
Learning Styles
(1355)
Learning Strategies and Approaches to Studying
(1355)
Measurement Instruments
(1356)
Relationships to Achievement and to Learning Environments
(1357)
Other Applications in Education and Business
(1359)
See Also the Following Articles
(1359)
Further Reading
(1359)
Legal Competency, Pages 543-554, Norman G. Poythress
(1360)
Glossary
(1360)
Introduction: The Structure of Mental Health Laws
(1360)
Components of Legal Competencies
(1361)
Functional Component
(1361)
Causal Component
(1361)
Interactive Component
(1362)
Judgmental Component
(1362)
Dispositional Component
(1363)
Contexts for the Assessment of Legal Competency
(1363)
Competencies in the Criminal Justice Context
(1363)
Competence to Waive Miranda
(1363)
Adjudicative Competence
(1364)
Mental State at the Time of the Offense
(1365)
Competence to Be Executed
(1366)
Civil Competencies
(1366)
Guardianship
(1366)
Competence to Make Treatment Decisions
(1368)
Competence to Consent to Research Participation
(1368)
Testamentary Capacity
(1369)
Issues in Forensic Assessment
(1369)
Ethical Issues
(1369)
Instrumentation
(1370)
Communicating with Attorneys and Courts
(1370)
See Also the Following Articles
(1370)
Further Reading
(1370)
Leisure and Work, Relationship between, Pages 555-565, Howard E. A. Tinsley and Diane J. Tinsley
(1372)
Glossary
(1372)
Research on Leisure
(1373)
Emergence of a Psychological Perspective
(1373)
Attributes of Leisure Experience
(1374)
Prerequisites of Leisure Experience
(1375)
Control and Reactance
(1375)
Intrinsic Motivation
(1375)
Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
(1375)
Autonomy and Competence
(1375)
Relatedness
(1376)
Overjustification
(1376)
Extrinsic Regulation
(1376)
Optimal Arousal
(1376)
Homeostasis and Optimal Arousal
(1376)
Wundt’s Law of Hedonic Tone
(1376)
Dual-Process Model
(1377)
Commitment
(1377)
Benefits of Leisure Experience
(1377)
The Meaning of Benefit
(1378)
Methodological Problems
(1378)
Theories of Benefit Production
(1378)
Idle Hands Theory
(1379)
Theory of Transcendent Leisure Experiences
(1379)
Applications of Psychology of Leisure
(1380)
Leisure Counseling
(1380)
Recreation Opportunity Spectrum
(1381)
Amenity Resource Valuation
(1381)
Summary
(1381)
See Also the Following Articles
(1382)
Further Reading
(1382)
Lifespan Development and Culture, Pages 567-574, Patricia M. Greenfield, Heidi Keller, Ashley Maynard and Lalita Suzuki
(1383)
Glossary
(1383)
Conceptual Issues in Cultural Lifespan Psychology
(1384)
The Ecocultural Approach
(1384)
The Sociohistorical Tradition
(1384)
Cultural Pathways through Universal Development: A New Synthesis
(1385)
Developmental Pathways in a Multicultural Society: Consequences for Application
(1387)
Application of Cultural Pathways During Infancy
(1387)
Applications of Cultural Pathways in Schools
(1388)
Conclusion
(1389)
See Also the Following Articles
(1389)
Further Reading
(1389)
Literacy, Improvement of, Pages 575-582, Robert C. Calfee
(1391)
Glossary
(1391)
Literacy: Tools for Thinking and Communicating
(1392)
Definition of Literacy
(1392)
Areas Calling for Improvement
(1393)
The Knowledge Base
(1393)
Improving Literacy: Tasks for Applied Psychology
(1394)
Assessment Concepts and Tools
(1394)
Interventions: Programs and People
(1395)
Individual Differences
(1396)
Prospects for Improving Literacy
(1397)
See Also the Following Articles
(1398)
Further Reading
(1398)
Section - M
(1399)
Marital Therapy, Pages 583-588, Angèle Fauchier and Gayla Margolin
(1399)
Glossary
(1399)
Introduction
(1400)
Assessment
(1400)
Common Considerations across Treatment Approaches
(1400)
Specific Therapies
(1401)
Behavioral Marital Therapy
(1401)
Cognitive-Behavioral Marital Therapy
(1401)
Integrative Behavioral Couple Therapy
(1402)
Brief Strategic Couple Therapy
(1402)
Emotion-Focused Therapy
(1402)
Insight-Oriented Marital Therapy
(1403)
Prevention
(1403)
Outcome Research
(1403)
See Also the Following Articles
(1404)
Further Reading
(1404)
Mathematics, Teaching of, Pages 589-593, Steven R. Williams
(1405)
Glossary
(1405)
Introduction
(1405)
Current Views of Mathematical Understanding
(1406)
Applications of Cognitive Psychology to Teaching Mathematics
(1406)
Studies of Early Number Learning
(1406)
Summary
(1407)
The Discursive Turn in Mathematics Education
(1407)
Applications of Cultural Psychology to Teaching Mathematics
(1408)
Conclusion
(1408)
See Also the Following Articles
(1408)
Further Reading
(1409)
Measurement and Counseling, Pages 595-599, Richard M. Lee and Brooke L. Dean
(1410)
Glossary
(1410)
Introduction
(1410)
Brief History of Psychological Measurement
(1411)
Relevance of Measurement to Counseling Psychology
(1411)
Counseling Process and Outcome
(1412)
Concluding Remarks
(1413)
See Also the Following Articles
(1413)
Further Reading
(1413)
Mental Measurement and Culture, Pages 601-607, Fons J. R. van de Vijver
(1415)
Glossary
(1415)
Culture and Mental Measurement
(1416)
Bias
(1416)
Construct Bias
(1416)
Method Bias
(1417)
Equivalence
(1419)
Cultural Factors in the Assessment of Personality and Intelligence
(1419)
See Also the Following Articles
(1421)
Further Reading
(1421)
Mentoring, Pages 609-615, Joyce E. A. Russell
(1422)
Glossary
(1422)
Definition of Mentoring
(1422)
Functions Provided by Mentors
(1423)
Career Development
(1423)
Psychosocial Support
(1423)
Phases in Mentoring Relationships
(1424)
Outcomes of Mentoring
(1424)
Benefits for the Proteacutegeacute
(1424)
Benefits for the Mentor
(1424)
Benefits for the Organization
(1425)
Challenges with Mentoring Relationships for the Organization
(1425)
Role Modeling Identification
(1425)
Perceptions by Others of the Mentoring Relationship
(1425)
Establishing Formal Versus Informal Relationships
(1425)
Risks Associated with Mentoring
(1426)
Dysfunctional Mentoring Relationships
(1426)
Suggestions for Improving Mentoring Relationships in the Organization
(1426)
Make Sure That Everyone Has Access to Mentoring
(1426)
Encourage Individuals to Establish Multiple Mentoring Relationships
(1426)
Establish a Culture That Encourages Mentoring Relationships
(1427)
New Directions for Mentoring Research
(1427)
Clarify the Mentoring Construct
(1427)
Examine Alternative Forms of Mentoring
(1427)
Explore Mentoring for Diverse Types of Employees
(1427)
Cross-Generations
(1427)
Free Agent Workers
(1427)
Entrepreneurs
(1427)
Global Workforce
(1428)
Conclusion
(1428)
See Also the Following Articles
(1428)
Further Reading
(1428)
Models for Transportation, Pages 617-623, John D. Lee
(1429)
Glossary
(1429)
Introduction
(1429)
Model Purpose
(1430)
Model Scope
(1430)
Model Type
(1431)
Emerging Models of Driver Performance
(1431)
Driver Performance Model in the Interactive Highway Safety Design Model
(1431)
In-Vehicle Information Systems Demand Model
(1432)
Rear-End Collision Warning Assessment Model
(1433)
Cognitive Architectures for Modeling Driver Performance
(1434)
Conclusions
(1434)
See Also the Following Articles
(1434)
Further Reading
(1434)
Motivational Taxonomies, Pages 625-630, Jeffrey B. Vancouver
(1436)
Glossary
(1436)
Introduction
(1436)
Definitions
(1436)
Content Theories
(1437)
Needs Theories
(1437)
Job Design
(1437)
Equity and Justice
(1438)
Process Theories
(1438)
Learning Theories
(1438)
Decision Theories
(1439)
Goal Theories
(1440)
Integrative Efforts
(1440)
Implications for Work Settings
(1440)
Who Should Be Hired?
(1440)
Why Do Individuals Accept Job Offers and Stay?
(1441)
Why Do Individuals Work Hard (or Not)?
(1441)
See Also the Following Articles
(1441)
Further Reading
(1441)
Motivation and Culture, Pages 631-639, Dennis M. McInerney, Martin L. Maehr and Martin Dowson
(1442)
Glossary
(1442)
Cross-Cultural Approaches to Achievement and Achievement Motivation
(1443)
Early Studies in Motivation and Achievement
(1443)
Early Conceptualizations of Achievement and Achievement Motivation
(1443)
Toward a Basis for Investigating Achievement and Achievement Motivation across Cultures
(1444)
Personal Investment Theory
(1445)
Ecological Theory
(1445)
Attribution Theory
(1446)
Goal Theory
(1446)
Applying Social Cognitive Conceptualizations of Motivation and Achievement
(1447)
Methodological Improvements in Applied Settings
(1447)
Informal Assessment of Motivation in Applied Settings
(1448)
Conclusion
(1448)
See Also the Following Articles
(1449)
Further Reading
(1449)
Motivation to Diet and Exercise, Pages 641-646, Larry M. Leith
(1451)
Glossary
(1451)
Introduction
(1451)
Motivational Considerations in Diet and Exercise
(1452)
Self-Efficacy Theory
(1452)
Protection Motivation Theory
(1453)
Self-Determination Theory
(1453)
Individual Intervention Strategies to Improve Diet and Exercise
(1454)
Strategy 1: Removing Potent Cues That Are Associated with a Problem Behavior
(1454)
Strategy 2: Making the Problem Behavior Unlikely or Impossible
(1454)
Strategy 3: Developing New Behaviors to Replace Maladaptive Ones
(1454)
Strategy 4: Developing Cues That Will Foster a Desired Behavior
(1454)
Strategy 5: Rewarding Oneself for Exhibiting a Good Behavior
(1454)
Strategy 6: Rewarding Oneself with What One Really Wants to Do Anyway
(1455)
Strategy 7: Using a Point-Reward System to Motivate Oneself
(1455)
Strategy 8: Being Creative in Finding New Ways in Which to Reward Oneself
(1455)
Strategy 9: Using a Behavioral Contract to Help Achieve One’s Goals
(1455)
Concluding Remarks
(1455)
See Also the Following Articles
(1456)
Further Reading
(1456)
Motives and Goals, Pages 647-655, Uwe E. Kleinbeck
(1457)
Glossary
(1457)
Introduction
(1457)
Goal Effects: Mechanisms and Moderators
(1458)
Developing a Personal Goal
(1460)
Acceptance of Goals
(1460)
How to Pursue Goals That Are (Still) Unknown
(1462)
Managing Successful Goal-Oriented Work Behavior: The Participatory Productivity Management
(1462)
Competencies in Managing Goal-Directed Behavior
(1463)
An Integrative Model for the Effects of Motives and Goals
(1464)
See Also the Following Articles
(1465)
Further Reading
(1465)
Section - N
(1466)
Neuropsychological Assessment in Schools, Pages 657-664, Daniel C. Miller
(1466)
Glossary
(1466)
School-Based Problems That Can Be Addressed by Neuropsychological Assessment
(1467)
Case Examples
(1467)
Specific Learning Disabilities
(1467)
Traumatic Brain Injury
(1468)
Other Disabilities That May Warrant a Neuropsychological Evaluation
(1468)
State of the Art of Neuropsychological Assessment in Schools
(1469)
Neuropsychological Assessment in the Past and Present
(1469)
Who Can Complete a Neuropsychological Assessment?
(1470)
Conceptual Framework for School Neuropsychological Assessment
(1471)
Summary
(1472)
See Also the Following Articles
(1473)
Further Reading
(1473)
Nicotine Addiction, Pages 665-668, Neil E. Grunberg and Jennifer M. Phillips
(1474)
Glossary
(1474)
Introduction
(1474)
Nicotine Overview
(1475)
Role of Nicotine in Tobacco Use
(1476)
Nicotine as a Treatment for Tobacco Cessation
(1476)
Directions in Nicotine Addiction Research and Application
(1476)
See Also the Following Articles
(1477)
Further Reading
(1477)
Nondiscriminatory Assessment in Schools, Pages 669-676, Samuel O. Ortiz
(1478)
Glossary
(1478)
Introduction
(1479)
Brief History of Nondiscriminatory Assessment in Schools
(1479)
Issues and Definitions of Test Bias
(1481)
Issues in Psychological Testing
(1483)
Nondiscriminatory Assessment
(1484)
Summary
(1484)
See Also the Following Articles
(1485)
Further Reading
(1485)
Section - O
(1486)
Obesity, Pages 677-681, Shannon M. Kehle, Jessica S. Benas and Michael A. Friedman
(1486)
Glossary
(1486)
Basic Knowledge of Obesity
(1486)
Definition
(1486)
Prevalence
(1486)
Causes
(1487)
Problems Associated with Obesity
(1487)
Medical Consequences
(1487)
Social Stigma
(1487)
Psychological and Behavioral Consequences
(1487)
Treatments
(1488)
Medical Approaches
(1488)
Very Low-Calorie Diets
(1488)
Behavioral Approaches
(1488)
Binge Eating Disorder
(1489)
Strategies for Weight Loss Maintenance
(1489)
Future Directions
(1490)
See Also the Following Articles
(1490)
Further Reading
(1490)
Occupational Choice, Pages 683-688, Jo-Ida C. Hansen and Sarah K. Stoever
(1491)
Glossary
(1491)
Career Theories
(1492)
Theory of Work Adjustment
(1492)
Super’s Life Span Theory
(1492)
Holland’s Theory of Vocational Personality Types
(1493)
Summary of Theories
(1494)
Career Counseling for Occupational Choice
(1494)
Conclusion
(1496)
See Also the Following Articles
(1496)
Further Reading
(1496)
Occupational Psychology, Overview, Pages 689-697, Neil Anderson
(1497)
Glossary
(1497)
Introduction
(1498)
Domain-Relevant Fields
(1498)
Brief History
(1498)
Defining Occupational Psychology
(1499)
Applications of Occupational Psychology
(1499)
Theoretical Perspectives
(1500)
Individual Differences
(1500)
Applied Social Psychology
(1501)
Cognitive Psychology
(1501)
Management Theory
(1501)
Key Topics in Occupational Psychology
(1501)
Contracts
(1502)
Job Stress and Burnout
(1502)
Occupation and Gender
(1502)
Personal Initiative and Innovation
(1503)
Personnel Selection
(1503)
Safety and Risks
(1504)
Work Teams
(1504)
See Also the Following Articles
(1504)
Further Reading
(1504)
Occupation and Gender, Pages 699-705, Eva Bamberg
(1506)
Glossary
(1506)
The Gender-Specific Employment Market
(1506)
History of I/O Psychology
(1507)
Concepts and Results
(1507)
Occupational Values and Goals
(1508)
Leadership
(1508)
Occupation and Health Issues
(1509)
Explanations
(1509)
Career Advancement for Women and Managing Diversity
(1510)
Practical and Scientific Perspectives
(1511)
See Also the Following Articles
(1511)
Further Reading
(1512)
Openness to Experience, Pages 707-709, Robert R. McCrae
(1513)
Glossary
(1513)
Conceptualizations of Openness
(1513)
Openness and Creativity
(1514)
Openness and Vocational Behavior
(1514)
See Also the Following Articles
(1515)
Further Reading
(1515)
Optimism, Pages 711-714, Christopher Peterson and Nansook Park
(1516)
Glossary
(1516)
Introduction
(1516)
Contemporary Approaches to Optimism
(1517)
Dispositional Optimism
(1517)
Explanatory Style
(1517)
Hope
(1517)
Measures of Optimism
(1518)
Outcomes
(1518)
Development of Optimism
(1518)
Deliberate Interventions
(1519)
Conclusion
(1519)
See Also the Following Articles
(1519)
Further Reading
(1519)
Organizational Culture and Climate, Pages 715-721, Mark F. Peterson and Ronald Fischer
(1520)
Glossary
(1520)
Basic Concepts
(1521)
History of Organizational Climate Analysis
(1521)
History of Organizational Culture Analysis
(1522)
Organizational Climate Change and Consultancy
(1523)
Organizational Culture Change and Consultancy
(1523)
The Questionable Virtues of Strong Organizational Cultures
(1524)
Are Organizational Climate and Organizational Culture Analogous to Characteristics of Larger Societies and Nations?
(1524)
Institutional Analysis as an Alternative to Climate and Culture
(1525)
Recent Literature Reviews and Compilations
(1525)
See Also the Following Articles
(1525)
Further Reading
(1525)
Organizational Diagnosis, Pages 723-729, André Büssing
(1527)
Glossary
(1527)
The Concept of Organizational Diagnosis
(1527)
Goals and Tasks
(1528)
Methods
(1529)
Instruments and Quality Criteria
(1529)
Data Analysis
(1530)
Conducting Organizational Diagnosis
(1530)
An Example: Organizational Diagnosis of Climate and Culture
(1531)
Conclusion
(1532)
Acknowledgments
(1533)
See Also the Following Articles
(1533)
Further Reading
(1533)
Organizational Justice, Pages 731-735, Paul E. Levy and Christina Norris-Watts
(1534)
Glossary
(1534)
What Is Organizational Justice?
(1534)
History of Justice in Organizations
(1535)
Theoretical Conceptualizations of Justice
(1535)
The Importance of Justice
(1535)
Deciding What Is Just
(1536)
Antecedents of Organizational Justice
(1536)
Individual Differences
(1536)
Situational Characteristics
(1536)
Supervisory Factors
(1537)
Consequences of Organizational Justice
(1537)
Attitudes
(1537)
Behaviors
(1537)
Conclusion
(1538)
See Also the Following Articles
(1538)
Further Reading
(1538)
Organizational Participation, Pages 737-741, Frank Heller
(1539)
Glossary
(1539)
Introduction
(1540)
Conceptual Schemes
(1540)
Background
(1541)
Examination of the Evidence
(1541)
Traditional Fieldwork
(1541)
Cross-National Studies and Surveys
(1541)
Various Adaptations
(1541)
Systems-Oriented Research
(1542)
Conclusion
(1543)
See Also the Following Articles
(1543)
Further Reading
(1543)
Organizational Socialization, Pages 743-745, Talya N. Bauer
(1544)
Glossary
(1544)
Introduction
(1544)
Stages of Socialization
(1545)
Common Outcomes of Socialization
(1545)
What Do Organizations Do to Facilitate Socialization?
(1545)
How Do Insiders Aid in Socialization?
(1545)
Newcomer Proaction
(1546)
Socialization Research Methods
(1546)
Conclusion
(1546)
See Also the Following Articles
(1546)
Further Reading
(1546)
Organizational Structure, Pages 747-753, Lois E. Tetrick and Michael K. Camburn
(1547)
Glossary
(1547)
Introduction
(1547)
Traditional Dimensions
(1548)
Centralization
(1548)
Individual Consequences of Centralization
(1548)
Organizational Consequences of Centralization
(1548)
Formalization
(1548)
Individual Consequences of Formalization
(1549)
Organizational Consequences of Formalization
(1549)
Specialization
(1549)
Individual Consequences of Specialization
(1549)
Organizational Consequences of Specialization
(1549)
Modern Approach
(1549)
Work Teams
(1550)
Individual Consequences of Work Teams
(1550)
Organizational Consequences of Work Teams
(1550)
Matrix Structure
(1550)
Individual Consequences of Matrix Organization
(1550)
Organizational Consequences of Matrix Organization
(1550)
Organizational Learning
(1551)
Individual Consequences of Organizational Learning
(1551)
Organizational Consequences of Organizational Learning
(1551)
Globalization
(1551)
Individual Consequences of Globalization
(1551)
Organizational Consequences of Globalization
(1551)
Alternative Employment Relationships
(1552)
Individual Consequences of Alternative Employment Relationships
(1552)
Organizational Consequences of Alternative Employment Relationships
(1552)
Conclusions
(1552)
See Also the Following Articles
(1552)
Further Reading
(1552)
Organization Development, Pages 755-772, W. Warner Burke
(1554)
Glossary
(1554)
An Organization Development Case
(1555)
Primary Characteristics of OD
(1556)
Relevance
(1556)
Sequential
(1556)
Systemic
(1557)
Research Based
(1558)
Humanistic
(1558)
Roots of OD
(1558)
Sensitivity Training
(1558)
Sociotechnical Systems
(1558)
Survey Feedback
(1558)
Related Theories That Underlie OD
(1559)
Individual Level
(1559)
Need Theory of Motivation
(1559)
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
(1559)
Job Satisfaction
(1559)
Positive Reinforcement
(1559)
Group Level
(1560)
The Group as the Focus of Change
(1560)
Changing Values through the Group
(1560)
The Group Unconscious
(1560)
Larger System Level
(1560)
Participative Management-One Best Way
(1560)
It all Depends
(1560)
The Organization as a Family
(1560)
OD as a Process of Change
(1561)
Levin’s Three-Step Change Procedure
(1561)
Schein’s Elaboration on Levin’s Three-Step Procedure
(1561)
Stage 1: Unfreezing
(1561)
Stage 2: Changing
(1561)
Stage 3: Refreezing
(1562)
Lippitt et al.'s Five-Step Elaboration
(1562)
Understanding Organizations: The Diagnostic Process
(1564)
Four Models Commonly Used by OD Practitioners
(1565)
Weisbord’s Six-Box Model
(1565)
Nadler-Tushman Congruence Model
(1565)
Tichy’s TPC Framework
(1565)
Porras’s Stream Analysis
(1566)
Burke-Litwin Causal Model of Organization Performance and Change
(1566)
Planning and Managing the Consequences of Change
(1567)
Does OD Work?
(1567)
Evidence
(1567)
Methodology
(1567)
The OD Consultant
(1568)
Expert Facilitation
(1568)
Becoming an OD Consultant
(1569)
OD Values and Considerations for the Future of the Field
(1569)
OD Values
(1569)
Considerations for the Future of OD
(1570)
See Also the Following Articles
(1570)
Further Reading
(1570)
Organizations, Careers in, Pages 773-777, Ayse Karaevli and Douglas T. Hall
(1572)
Glossary
(1572)
Organizational Careers
(1572)
Career and Life Stages
(1572)
Schein’s Model of the Organizational Career
(1573)
Careers as Learning Cycles
(1573)
The New Career Contract: Protean and Boundaryless Careers
(1573)
The Protean Career Contract
(1573)
The Boundaryless Career
(1574)
Mobility via Contingent Employment
(1574)
Life and Work Roles
(1574)
Predicting Career Effectiveness
(1575)
Performance
(1575)
Career Attitudes
(1575)
Adaptability
(1575)
Identity
(1575)
Conclusion
(1575)
Acknowledgment
(1576)
See Also the Following Articles
(1576)
Further Reading
(1576)
Overtraining and Burnout in Sports, Pages 779-784, Michael Kellmann
(1577)
Glossary
(1577)
Introduction
(1577)
Recovery
(1578)
Overtraining
(1578)
Burnout
(1579)
Interrelation of Stress States and Recovery Demands
(1580)
Treatment of Overtraining and Burnout
(1581)
See Also the Following Articles
(1582)
Further Reading
(1582)
Section - P
(1583)
Pain Management, Pages 785-791, Dennis C. Turk
(1583)
Glossary
(1583)
Pain: Magnitude of the Problem
(1584)
Pharmacological and Surgical Treatments for Pain
(1584)
Factors Influencing the Perception of Pain
(1584)
Psychological Treatment of Chronic Pain Patients
(1585)
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy: Components
(1586)
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy: Efficacy
(1586)
Interdisciplinary Pain Rehabilitation Programs
(1586)
Subgroups of Chronic Pain Sufferers
(1587)
Concluding Comments
(1587)
Acknowledgments
(1587)
See Also the Following Articles
(1587)
Further Reading
(1588)
Panic, Pages 793-796, Martin M. Antony
(1590)
Glossary
(1590)
Introduction
(1590)
Definitions and Description
(1591)
Epidemiology of Panic Disorder
(1591)
Causes of Panic Disorder
(1592)
Treatment of Panic Disorder
(1592)
See Also the Following Articles
(1593)
Further Reading
(1593)
Paralinguistic Behaviors and Culture, Pages 797-813, Hede Helfrich
(1594)
Glossary
(1594)
Introduction
(1595)
The Nature of Paralinguistic Behaviors
(1595)
Description of Phenomena
(1595)
Measurement of Paralinguistic Behaviors
(1595)
Levels of Analysis
(1595)
Vocal Behavior
(1596)
Nonvocal Behavior
(1596)
Possible Functions of Paralinguistic Behaviors
(1596)
The Relevance of Culture
(1597)
Evolutionary Continuity in Communication
(1598)
Paradigms for the Study of Paralinguistic Behaviors
(1599)
A Functional Framework
(1599)
The Communication Model of Schulz von Thun
(1599)
The Brunswikian Lens Model
(1599)
Externalization of Paralinguistic Behaviors
(1600)
Gender and Age of the Speaker
(1600)
Personality Traits of the Speaker
(1601)
Situational States of the Speaker
(1601)
Emotional Content
(1602)
Appeal to the Listener
(1602)
Interpersonal Relationship between Speaker and Listener
(1603)
Accuracy of Listeners’ Inferences
(1604)
Methodological Considerations
(1604)
Personality Judgments
(1605)
Judgment of Emotional Content
(1605)
Use of Paralinguistic Cues by Listeners
(1606)
Methodological Considerations
(1606)
Cues to Personality Traits and Situational States
(1606)
Cues to Emotional Content
(1607)
Selective Attention to Various Cues
(1607)
Conclusion
(1608)
Universals and Cultural Differences
(1608)
Applications to Intercultural Encounters
(1608)
Acknowledgments
(1609)
See Also the Following Articles
(1609)
Further Reading
(1609)
Part-Time Work, Pages 815-819, Neil Conway
(1611)
Glossary
(1611)
Introduction
(1611)
Defining Part-Time Work
(1612)
Comparing the Work Attitudes and Behaviors of Part-Time and Full-Time Employees
(1612)
Differences among Part-Time Employees
(1613)
Theoretical Approaches for Understanding Differences across Part-Time and Full-Time Work
(1614)
‘‘Part-Time’’ as a Proxy for Other Key Variables
(1614)
Partial Inclusion
(1614)
Frames of Reference
(1614)
Social Exchange and the Psychological Contract
(1615)
Preferred Work Status/Schedule
(1615)
Conclusion
(1615)
Acknowledgment
(1615)
See Also the Following Articles
(1615)
Further Reading
(1615)
Pediatric Psychology, Pages 821-825, Merritt M. Jensen and Anne E. Kazak
(1616)
Glossary
(1616)
Definitions: Pediatric Psychology and Pediatric Psychologist
(1617)
Pediatric Psychology: Integrating Psychology and Pediatrics
(1617)
Emergence of Pediatric Psychology
(1617)
Growth of Pediatric Psychology within Medical Settings
(1617)
Major Research Areas within Pediatric Psychology
(1617)
Chronic Illness
(1617)
Assessment
(1618)
Intervention: Evidence-Based Treatments
(1618)
Prevention
(1618)
Family Systems
(1619)
Clinical Practice of Pediatric Psychology
(1619)
Settings in Which Pediatric Psychologists Work
(1619)
Roles of Pediatric Psychologists
(1619)
Pediatric Psychology Training
(1619)
See Also the Following Articles
(1620)
Further Reading
(1620)
Perception and Culture, Pages 827-832, J. B. Dergowski
(1621)
Glossary
(1621)
Introduction
(1621)
The Notion of Culture
(1622)
Visual Illusions
(1622)
Pictorial Perception
(1622)
Perception of Patterns
(1624)
Eidetic Imagery
(1625)
Studies of Perception of Color
(1625)
Perception of Time
(1625)
Concluding Remarks
(1625)
See Also the Following Articles
(1626)
Further Reading
(1626)
Performance Slumps in Sport - Prevention and Coping, Pages 833-841, J. Robert Grove
(1627)
Glossary
(1627)
Slumps Versus Choking and Plateaus
(1628)
Causes of Performance Slumps
(1628)
Psychological Consequences of Slumps
(1630)
Factors Influencing the Reaction to Slumps
(1630)
Coping Behaviors in Response to Slumps
(1630)
Can Slumps Be Prevented?
(1632)
Increasing Awareness and Managing Risk
(1632)
Maintaining Confidence and Emotional Stability
(1633)
Performance Recovery Strategies
(1634)
Summary and Conclusions
(1634)
See Also the Following Articles
(1635)
Further Reading
(1635)
Personal Initiative and Innovation, Pages 843-855, Fiona Patterson
(1636)
Glossary
(1636)
Introduction
(1636)
Defining Innovation
(1637)
The Innovation Process
(1637)
Person-Level Influences
(1638)
Intelligence
(1640)
General Intelligence
(1640)
Aspect of Genius
(1640)
Cognitive Abilities
(1640)
Observer Judgments of Intelligence
(1641)
Knowledge
(1641)
Personality
(1641)
Openness to Experience
(1641)
Agreeableness
(1642)
Conscientiousness
(1642)
Extraversion
(1642)
Neuroticism
(1642)
Motivation
(1642)
Personal Initiative
(1643)
Work Group Innovation
(1643)
Operating Principles
(1643)
Diversity, Dissent, and Minority Group Influence
(1644)
Group Development over Time
(1644)
Group Climate
(1644)
Leadership
(1644)
Organizational Innovation
(1645)
Climate and Culture
(1645)
Structure and Size
(1645)
Resources and Work Processes
(1646)
External Demands and Environment
(1646)
Emerging Issues
(1646)
Summary
(1647)
See Also the Following Articles
(1648)
Further Reading
(1648)
Personality and Emotion in Late Life, Pages 1-10, Nicole Alea, Manfred Diehl and Susan Bluck
(1649)
Glossary
(1649)
Introduction
(1649)
Personality in Late Life
(1650)
Theoretical Issues
(1650)
Personality Theories
(1650)
Mechanisms of Continuity and Change
(1650)
Methods and Measures
(1651)
Types of Continuity in Longitudinal Research
(1651)
Factors Affecting Whether Continuity or Change Is Observed
(1651)
Major Findings
(1652)
Evidence for Continuity
(1652)
Evidence for Change
(1653)
Intraindividual Variability: Evidence for Continuity and Change
(1653)
Emotion in Late Life
(1653)
Theoretical Issues
(1653)
Emotion Regulation and Affect Optimization
(1653)
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
(1653)
Cognitive-Affective Developmental Theory
(1654)
Discrete Emotions Functionalist Theory
(1654)
Methods and Measures
(1654)
Objective Measures
(1654)
Subjective Measures
(1654)
Major Findings
(1655)
Experience of Emotion
(1655)
Emotion Regulation
(1656)
Expression of Emotion
(1656)
Concluding Remarks: Linking Personality and Emotion
(1657)
See Also the Following Articles
(1657)
Further Reading
(1657)
Personality Assessment, Pages 11-14, Gian Vittorio Caprara and Daniel Cervone
(1659)
Glossary
(1659)
Modern Approaches and Contemporary Trends
(1660)
Issues and Strategies
(1661)
See Also the Following Articles
(1662)
Further Reading
(1662)
Personal Space, Pages 15-17, Robert Sommer
(1663)
Glossary
(1663)
Personal Space Concept
(1663)
Measurement of Personal Space
(1663)
Research Findings
(1664)
Applications
(1664)
Design and Architecture
(1664)
Communication Skills
(1664)
Legal Uses
(1664)
See Also the Following Articles
(1665)
Further Reading
(1665)
Person-Environment Fit, Pages 19-28, Cheri Ostroff and Kerstin A. Aumann
(1666)
Glossary
(1666)
Overview and Definitions
(1666)
Definition: What Is Fit?
(1667)
Brief History: From Interactional Psychology to Fit
(1667)
Fit to Different Levels of Analysis
(1668)
Supplementary and Complementary Fit
(1668)
Creation of and Importance of Fit
(1669)
Processes That Create Fit: The Attraction-Selection-Attrition Cycle and Socialization
(1669)
How Fit Affects Responses in Organizations
(1669)
Relationships between Fit and Outcomes
(1670)
Assessing and Measuring Fit
(1670)
Commensurate Dimensions
(1670)
Direct Fit Versus Indirect Fit
(1670)
Sources and Focus of Measurement
(1671)
Analytical Issues
(1671)
Selected Applications of Fit
(1671)
Organizational Culture and Climate
(1671)
Selection and Socialization
(1672)
Team Composition and Diversity
(1672)
Implications
(1673)
A Potential Paradox of Fit
(1674)
Possible Solutions
(1674)
Conclusion
(1675)
See Also the Following Articles
(1675)
Further Reading
(1675)
Personnel Psychology, Pages 29-34, David Chan
(1676)
Glossary
(1676)
Recruitment
(1676)
Selection
(1677)
Training
(1677)
Performance Appraisal and Feedback
(1678)
Compensation
(1679)
Current Themes in Personnel Psychology
(1680)
See Also the Following Articles
(1680)
Further Reading
(1680)
Personnel Selection, Pages 35-43, Deniz S. Ones and Chockalingam Viswesvaran
(1682)
Glossary
(1682)
Introduction
(1682)
Predictors Used in Personnel Selection
(1684)
Cognitive Ability Tests
(1684)
Physical Ability Tests
(1685)
Personality Tests
(1685)
Biographical Information (Biodata)
(1686)
Job Simulations and Work Samples
(1686)
Assessment Centers
(1687)
Interviews
(1687)
Integrity Tests
(1687)
Drug Testing
(1687)
Fairness in Selection
(1688)
Combining Predictors
(1689)
Emerging Issues in Selection
(1689)
Conclusion
(1690)
See Also the Following Articles
(1690)
Further Reading
(1690)
Play, Pages 45-50, Cindy Dell Clark
(1691)
Glossary
(1691)
Introduction
(1691)
Play: Developmental Processes
(1692)
Play: Sociocultural Contexts
(1693)
Therapeutic Play
(1695)
See Also the Following Articles
(1696)
Further Reading
(1696)
Political Psychology, Overview, Pages 51-65, Patrizia Catellani
(1697)
Glossary
(1697)
Scope of Political Psychology
(1698)
Area of Interest
(1698)
Historical Development
(1698)
Political Knowledge and Political Attitudes
(1699)
Candidate Perception and Evaluation
(1700)
Traits
(1700)
Emotions
(1701)
Influence of Ideological Orientation
(1701)
Assimilation and Contrast Effects
(1701)
Expertise
(1702)
Ideological Orientation and Values
(1702)
Political Identity and Conflict
(1703)
Political Identity
(1703)
Regional, National, and Supranational Identity
(1704)
International Conflict
(1705)
Political Communication
(1705)
Mass Media and Politics
(1705)
Political Language
(1706)
Interviewing Politicians
(1706)
Political Discourse
(1707)
Political Persuasion
(1708)
Political Participation
(1708)
Voting Behavior
(1708)
Cognitive Factors
(1708)
Personal Interest
(1709)
Social Factors
(1709)
Collective Action
(1710)
See Also the Following Articles
(1710)
Further Reading
(1710)
Postmodernism in Psychology, Pages 67-73, Teresa Cabruja Ubach
(1712)
Glossary
(1712)
Introduction
(1713)
Contextualization: Issues of Postmodern Thought as a Critique of Modern Rationality
(1713)
Postmodernity and the ‘‘Postmodern Condition’’
(1713)
Three Main Ideas from Postmodern Thought
(1714)
Postmodernism Comes to Psychology: The Crisis of Modern Psychology and Its Different Theoretical and Practical Proposals
(1714)
Modern Psychology and the Analysis of Its Own Discourse
(1714)
The New Conception of Psychology: The Postmodern Psychology
(1715)
Implications for Traditional Psychological Topics Such as Emotion, Attitudes, and Memory
(1715)
Bases for Reconsidering the Main Topics of Psychology
(1715)
Examples: The Study of Emotions, Attitudes, and Memory
(1715)
Implications for Psychological Fields and the New Role of the Psychologist
(1716)
Implications of the Postmodern Turn for Psychological Fields
(1716)
Implications for the New Role of the Psychologist
(1716)
An Example: Implications of the Postmodern Turn on the Study and Conception of Identity and Gender
(1717)
The Deconstruction of the Subject in the Postmodern Perspective and the Changes with Regard to Identity
(1717)
Cyberpsychology and the Deconstruction of Gender
(1717)
See Also the Following Articles
(1718)
Further Reading
(1718)
Postsecondary Education Students, Counseling of, Pages 75-81, Kathleen L. Davis and P. Gary Klukken
(1719)
Glossary
(1719)
Overview: The Need for Counseling
(1719)
The Role of Stress and Adjustment
(1720)
Influence of Diversity
(1720)
Problems That Interfere with College Goals
(1721)
Academic Problems
(1721)
Study Skills
(1721)
Time Management
(1721)
Student Role Conflicts
(1721)
Career Decision Problems
(1721)
Undecided Students
(1722)
Indecisive Students
(1722)
Personal Problems
(1722)
Relationship Problems
(1722)
Family Problems
(1722)
Alcohol Use and Abuse
(1723)
Depression
(1723)
Anxiety
(1723)
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
(1724)
Environmental Problems
(1724)
Counseling Resources
(1724)
See Also the Following Articles
(1724)
Further Reading
(1725)
Posttraumatic Disorders, Pages 83-90, David S. Riggs and Edna B. Foa
(1726)
Glossary
(1726)
Definition of Trauma
(1727)
Common Reactions to Trauma
(1727)
Course of Recovery from Trauma
(1727)
Psychological Disorders Following Trauma
(1729)
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
(1729)
Acute Stress Disorder
(1729)
Assessment in the Wake of Trauma
(1729)
Assessing Exposure to Trauma
(1730)
Establishing the Presence of Trauma
(1730)
Identifying the Nature of the Traumatic Exposure
(1731)
Assessing the Severity of the Traumatic Event
(1731)
Assessing the Timing of the Traumatic Event
(1731)
Assessing Early Emotional Reactions to the Traumatic Event
(1731)
Assessment of Symptoms
(1732)
Assessing the Symptoms of PTSD or ASD
(1732)
Assessing Broader Difficulties Associated with Trauma
(1732)
Psychological Treatment of Posttraumatic Disorders
(1732)
Treatment of Chronic PTSD
(1733)
Treatments for ASD
(1733)
Debriefing: Treatment in the Wake of Trauma
(1733)
See Also the Following Articles
(1733)
Further Reading
(1733)
Power, Authority, and Leadership, Pages 91-99, Lourdes Munduate and Francisco J. Medina
(1734)
Glossary
(1734)
Power and Influence
(1734)
Social Influence Dynamic
(1735)
Bases and Sources of Power
(1735)
Influence Tactics
(1736)
Formal Authority and Leadership
(1736)
Management and Leadership
(1737)
Empowerment
(1737)
Models of Leadership
(1737)
Traits, Behaviors, and Situational Models
(1738)
Charismatic and Transformational Leadership
(1740)
Individual Differences and Cognitive Processing Models
(1741)
See Also the Following Articles
(1741)
Further Reading
(1742)
Prejudice and Discrimination, Pages 101-107, Victoria M. Esses, Antoinette H. Semenya and Monika Stelzl
(1743)
Glossary
(1743)
Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination
(1743)
Causes of Prejudice and Discrimination
(1744)
The Experience of Being a Target of Prejudice and Discrimination
(1745)
Psychological Strategies for Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination
(1746)
Programs for Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination in Educational and Employment Settings
(1747)
See Also the Following Articles
(1748)
Further Reading
(1748)
Privacy, Pages 109-119, Carol M. Werner, Barbara B. Brown and Irwin Altman
(1750)
Glossary
(1750)
Background and Definition
(1750)
Definition
(1750)
Privacy Mechanisms
(1751)
Importance of Privacy Regulation
(1752)
Importance
(1752)
Privacy Regulation as a ‘‘Cultural Universal’’
(1752)
Loneliness, Crowding, and Crime: Consequences of Adequate and Inadequate Privacy Regulation
(1753)
Dynamics of Privacy Regulation
(1753)
Viability
(1753)
Loneliness and Privacy Regulation
(1754)
Crowding and Privacy Regulation
(1754)
Privacy Regulation in Other Settings
(1756)
Crime and Defensible Design
(1756)
Technology and Privacy Regulation
(1757)
Communication Technology and Privacy
(1757)
Health Care Privacy
(1758)
Summary and Conclusions
(1759)
Overview of Importance of Privacy Regulation
(1759)
Prospects for the Future
(1759)
See Also the Following Articles
(1759)
Further Reading
(1759)
Productivity, Pages 121-125, Robert D. Pritchard
(1761)
Glossary
(1761)
Introduction
(1762)
History
(1762)
Productivity as a National Issue
(1762)
Defining Productivity
(1762)
Efficiency
(1762)
Combinations of Efficiency and Effectiveness
(1762)
Broader Definitions
(1763)
Definitions and Clear Communications
(1763)
The Importance of Productivity
(1763)
Global and National Benefits
(1763)
Benefits for Industries and Specific Organizations
(1763)
Benefits for Individuals
(1763)
Improving Productivity
(1763)
Approaches to Productivity Improvement
(1763)
Measuring Productivity
(1763)
Purpose of Measurement
(1764)
Criteria for a Good Productivity Measurement System
(1764)
Specific Approaches to Measuring and Improving Productivity
(1765)
See Also the Following Articles
(1765)
Further Reading
(1765)
Pro-environmental Attitudes and Behavioral Change, Pages 127-135, Henk Staats
(1766)
Glossary
(1766)
Introduction
(1766)
Environmental Problems as Social Dilemmas
(1767)
The Relation between Attitudes and Behavior
(1767)
Theory of Reasoned Action
(1767)
The Backgrounds of Attitude and Subjective Norm
(1768)
Correspondence: A Major Condition for Application of the TRA
(1768)
The Theory of Planned Behavior
(1768)
Norm Activation Theory
(1769)
Habits
(1770)
How to Effect Pro-environmental Behavior Change: The Role of Psychology
(1770)
Laws, Rules, and Regulations
(1770)
Changes in the Physical Environment
(1770)
Direct Influence on Behavior
(1771)
Influence on Habits That Control Behavior
(1771)
Influence on the Convenience of Performing Pro-environmental Behavior
(1771)
Monetary Incentives
(1771)
Policy Measures
(1771)
Price Perception
(1771)
Financial Measures
(1771)
Target Recurring Behavior
(1772)
Information Strategies
(1772)
Considerations Regarding the Effectiveness of Interventions for Pro-environmental Behavior Change
(1773)
Conclusions
(1774)
See Also the Following Articles
(1774)
Further Reading
(1774)
Prosocial Behavior, Development of, Pages 137-141, Nancy Eisenberg and Adrienne Sadovsky
(1775)
Glossary
(1775)
Introduction
(1775)
The Development of Prosocial Behavior
(1776)
Gender Differences
(1776)
Cultural Differences
(1777)
Contextual Factors
(1777)
Dispositional Factors
(1778)
The Origins of Prosocial Behavior
(1778)
See Also the Following Articles
(1778)
Further Reading
(1778)
Psychological Assessment, Standards and Guidelines for, Pages 143-147, Dave Bartram
(1780)
Glossary
(1780)
Introduction
(1780)
International Standards and Guidelines
(1781)
The International Test Commission
(1781)
ITC Guidelines on Adapting Tests
(1781)
ITC Guidelines on Test Use
(1781)
ITC Guidelines for Computer-Based and Internet-Delivered Testing
(1782)
European Initiatives
(1782)
The EFPA Test Review Criteria
(1782)
Other European Initiatives
(1782)
Other International Initiatives
(1782)
National Standards and Guidelines
(1782)
The United States
(1782)
The ‘‘Joint Standards’’
(1782)
Test User Qualification
(1782)
Computer-Based Testing
(1783)
Internet-Delivered Tests
(1783)
European Countries
(1783)
The United Kingdom
(1783)
Germany
(1783)
Finland
(1783)
Sweden, Norway, and Denmark
(1784)
The Netherlands
(1784)
Conclusion
(1784)
See Also the Following Articles
(1784)
Further Reading
(1784)
Psychological Rehabilitation Therapies, Pages 149-154, Karen G. Langer
(1785)
Glossary
(1785)
History
(1786)
Populations Served
(1786)
Treatment Considerations
(1786)
Assessment
(1786)
Setting
(1787)
Nature of Stressors
(1787)
Developmental Considerations
(1787)
Psychological Issues
(1788)
Therapeutic Approaches
(1788)
Conclusion
(1790)
See Also the Following Articles
(1790)
Further Reading
(1790)
Psychological Skills Training in Sport, Pages 155-170, Michael J. Mahoney and Benjamin P. Chapman
(1791)
Glossary
(1791)
Introduction
(1792)
The Athletic Personality
(1793)
Psychological Skills in Sport
(1793)
Bodily and Behavioral Control Skills
(1793)
Physiological Arousal Regulation
(1793)
Behavioral Practice
(1794)
Cognitive Skills
(1794)
Attention and Concentration
(1794)
Mental Rehearsal and Imagery
(1795)
Self-Monitoring
(1796)
Emotion Self-Regulation Skills
(1796)
Anxiety and Personal Meaning
(1796)
Self-Confidence and Self-Efficacy
(1797)
Motivational Skills
(1797)
Goal Setting
(1797)
Social Facilitation
(1798)
Social and Interpersonal Skills
(1798)
Communication
(1798)
Interpersonal and Intragroup Anxiety
(1799)
Training Psychological Skills
(1799)
Arousal and Anxiety Regulation
(1799)
Part Practice
(1801)
Improving Attention and Concentration
(1801)
Self-Monitoring and Self-Instruction Training
(1802)
Mental Imagery and Mental Rehearsal Training
(1802)
Acquiring Emotion Regulation Skills
(1803)
Training Appropriate Goal Setting
(1804)
Enhancing Communication
(1804)
Conclusions
(1805)
See Also the Following Articles
(1805)
Further Reading
(1805)
Psychology and the Law, Overview, Pages 171-184, Roy S. Malpass and Jane Goodman-Delahunty
(1807)
Glossary
(1807)
Introduction
(1808)
Important Attributes of the Field
(1808)
Articles in This Section
(1810)
Legal Competency
(1811)
Forensic Mental Health Assessment in Legal Contexts
(1812)
Child Custody
(1813)
Children’s Testimony
(1814)
Interviewing and Interrogation
(1815)
Eyewitness Testimony
(1816)
Eyewitness Identification
(1817)
Jury Decision Making
(1818)
See Also the Following Articles
(1820)
Further Reading
(1820)
Psychometric Tests, Pages 185-190, Peter F. Merenda
(1821)
Glossary
(1821)
Psychometric Tests Defined
(1821)
Characteristics of Psychometric Tests
(1822)
Characteristics of Nonpsychometric Tests
(1822)
Early History of Psychometrics
(1822)
Derivation From Psychophysics
(1822)
The Measurement Model
(1822)
Psychometric Theory and Principles
(1823)
Test and Testing Standards
(1823)
Ethical Principles Governing Use of Tests and Testing Practices
(1823)
Principal Psychometric Properties of Tests
(1823)
Requirement of Technical Manual for All Psychometric Tests
(1823)
Consequences of Using Tests That Do Not Comply with Testing Standards and Ethical Principles
(1824)
Conclusions
(1824)
See Also the Following Articles
(1825)
Further Reading
(1825)
Psychoneuroimmunology, Pages 191-195, Lise Solberg Nes and Suzanne C. Segerstrom
(1827)
Glossary
(1827)
About the Immune System
(1828)
Pathways between the Brain and the Immune System
(1828)
Autonomic Nervous System
(1828)
Endocrine System
(1828)
Immune-to-Brain Communication
(1828)
Stress, Hormones, and Immunity
(1829)
Psychological and Behavioral Interventions
(1829)
Stress Management
(1829)
Disclosure and Health
(1830)
Relaxation
(1830)
Hypnosis
(1830)
PNI and Interventions for Chronic Disease
(1830)
Interventions in HIV
(1830)
Interventions in Cancer
(1830)
Conclusion
(1831)
See Also the Following Articles
(1831)
Further Reading
(1831)
Psychophysiological Assessment, Pages 197-203, Jaime Vila
(1832)
Glossary
(1832)
Introduction
(1832)
Historical Antecedents
(1833)
Peripheral Psychophysiological Measures
(1833)
Surface Electromyography
(1833)
Cardiovascular Activity
(1834)
Electrodermal Activity
(1834)
Central Psychophysiological Measures
(1835)
Electromagnetic Techniques
(1835)
Metabolic Techniques
(1835)
The Psychological Context
(1835)
The Place
(1836)
The Participant
(1836)
The Task
(1836)
Assessment of Basic Psychological Processes
(1836)
Electromyography
(1836)
Heart Rate
(1836)
Skin Conductance
(1837)
Central Electromagnetic Measures
(1837)
Central Metabolic Measures
(1837)
Clinical Applications
(1837)
Psychopathological Disorders
(1837)
Psychophysiological Disorders
(1838)
Neuropsychological Disorders
(1838)
Acknowledgments
(1838)
See Also the Following Articles
(1838)
Further Reading
(1838)
Psychotherapy in Older Adults, Pages 205-210, Bob G. Knight and Steven David
(1839)
Glossary
(1839)
Presenting Problems
(1840)
Assessment, Diagnosis, and Prevalence
(1840)
Interventions
(1841)
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
(1841)
Other Individual Therapies
(1841)
Family and Caregiving Interventions
(1842)
Diversity
(1842)
Ethnicity
(1842)
Gender
(1842)
Sexual Identity
(1843)
Conclusions
(1843)
Acknowledgment
(1843)
See Also the Following Articles
(1843)
Further Reading
(1843)
Section - R
(1845)
Racial and Ethnic Minorities, Counseling of, Pages 211-215, Edward A. Delgado-Romero, Debra Mollen and Charles R. Ridley
(1845)
Glossary
(1845)
Introduction
(1845)
Motivation for Counseling Racial and Ethnic Minorities
(1846)
Acculturation and Counseling
(1847)
Unintentional Racism/Aversive Racism
(1847)
Racial Identity
(1847)
Multicultural Counseling Competence
(1848)
See Also the Following Articles
(1849)
Further Reading
(1849)
Rape Prevention, Pages 217-222, Barbara Krahé
(1850)
Glossary
(1850)
Rape: Definition and Prevalence
(1850)
Prevention Measures Targeting Individuals
(1851)
Programs Directed at All-Male Audiences
(1851)
Programs Directed at All-Female Audiences
(1852)
Programs Directed at Mixed-Sex Audiences
(1852)
Problems of Evaluation
(1853)
Prevention Measures at the Societal Level
(1853)
Reducing Opportunities for Sexual Assault
(1854)
Rape Prevention through Legal Reform
(1854)
Conclusion
(1854)
See Also the Following Articles
(1855)
Further Reading
(1855)
Reading Interventions, Pages 223-230, Laurice M. Joseph
(1856)
Glossary
(1856)
Introduction
(1856)
Concepts about Print
(1857)
Phonemic Awareness
(1857)
Alphabetic Principal
(1857)
Orthographic Processing
(1857)
Phonological Recoding
(1857)
Morphological Understandings
(1857)
Reading Fluency
(1858)
Characteristics of Individuals with Reading Problems
(1858)
Phonic Interventions
(1858)
Whole Word Interventions
(1859)
Repeated Readings
(1859)
Vocabulary Development and Reading Comprehension Strategies
(1859)
Principles of Teaching and Learning Reading
(1860)
Connecting to and Building on Schema
(1860)
Shaping Reading Behaviors
(1860)
Providing Opportunities to Learn
(1861)
Scaffolding
(1861)
Motivating
(1861)
Targeting and Continuous Improvement of Reading Skills through Processes of Linking Assessment to Intervention
(1862)
See Also the Following Articles
(1862)
Further Reading
(1862)
Reading, Teaching of, Pages 231-237, Virginia W. Berninger
(1864)
Glossary
(1864)
Historical Background
(1865)
Writing Systems and Teaching Methods
(1865)
Debates
(1865)
Relationship between Teaching and Learning
(1865)
Developmental Framework for Creating a Functional Reading System
(1866)
Learning to Read
(1866)
Teaching Word Reading Skills
(1867)
Teaching Reading Comprehension
(1867)
Integration of Reading with Other Language Skills
(1868)
Listening
(1868)
Speaking
(1868)
Writing
(1868)
Reading to Learn
(1869)
Teaching Domain-Specific Reading Skills in Content Areas
(1869)
Teaching Positive Affect Toward Reading
(1869)
Teaching Everyday Reading Skills
(1869)
Teaching Vocation-Specific Reading Skills
(1869)
Coordinating Reading and High-Level Skills
(1869)
Teaching Literacy for Technology Users
(1869)
Teaching Critical and Creative Thinking and Problem Solving
(1869)
Individualizing Instruction for Students with Reading Disabilities
(1869)
Optimizing Reading Instruction for All Students
(1870)
See Also the Following Articles
(1870)
Further Reading
(1870)
Reciprocity Norm, Pages 239-242, Edwin P. Hollander
(1871)
Glossary
(1871)
Background
(1871)
Mutual Interest
(1872)
Interdependence
(1872)
Social Exchange
(1872)
Equity and Inequity
(1873)
Bargaining and Negotiation
(1873)
Implications
(1874)
See Also the Following Articles
(1874)
Further Reading
(1874)
Recruitment, Pages 243-247, James A. Breaugh
(1875)
Glossary
(1875)
Problems Resulting from Ineffective Employee Recruitment
(1875)
Deciding on Recruitment Objectives
(1876)
Recruitment Strategy Development
(1876)
Considering the Job Applicant’s Perspective
(1878)
Assessing Recruitment Results
(1878)
Conclusion
(1878)
See Also the Following Articles
(1879)
Further Reading
(1879)
Rehabilitation Counseling, Pages 249-253, Timothy R. Elliott and Doreen Miller
(1880)
Glossary
(1880)
Introduction
(1880)
Defining Roles and Functions
(1881)
History and Evolution
(1881)
Critical Legislation
(1882)
Settings
(1882)
Research Base
(1883)
Summary
(1883)
See Also the Following Articles
(1884)
Further Reading
(1884)
Religion and Mental Health, Pages 255-258, Adam B. Cohen and Harold G. Koenig
(1885)
Glossary
(1885)
Introduction
(1885)
Benefits to Mental Health
(1886)
Applications of Religion
(1886)
Caveats to Researchers
(1886)
Testing Prayer?
(1886)
Negative Implications of Religion
(1886)
Training Counselors and Consultants
(1887)
Conclusion
(1887)
Acknowledgments
(1887)
See Also the Following Articles
(1887)
Further Reading
(1887)
Residential Preferences and Attachment across the Lifespan, Pages 259-266, M. Vittoria Giuliani
(1889)
Glossary
(1889)
Theories and Concepts
(1889)
The Meaning of Residential Environment and Home Attachment
(1890)
Preferences, Satisfaction, and Housing Choices
(1891)
Evaluative Perspectives and Aesthetic Preferences
(1892)
Methods for Assessing Preferences
(1892)
Housing Attributes and Preferences
(1893)
Interior Arrangement and Decoration
(1893)
Architectural Style
(1893)
Housing Location
(1894)
Personal and Social Influences in Preference Ratings
(1894)
Designers vs Users
(1894)
Gender Role
(1895)
Age and Stage of Life
(1895)
Moving Home and Attachment
(1895)
See Also the Following Articles
(1896)
Further Reading
(1896)
Residential Satisfaction and Perceived Urban Quality, Pages 267-272, Marino Bonaiuto
(1897)
Glossary
(1897)
Introduction
(1897)
Urban Environment Quality in Experts’ and Laypersons’ Evaluations
(1898)
Describing Residential Satisfaction and Perceived Residential Environment Quality
(1899)
Explaining Residential Satisfaction
(1900)
Applications
(1901)
See Also the Following Articles
(1901)
Further Reading
(1901)
Restorative Environments, Pages 273-279, Terry Harti
(1903)
Glossary
(1903)
Introduction
(1903)
Essential Components of Theories about Restorative Environments
(1904)
Antecedent Condition
(1904)
Restorative Process
(1904)
Environmental Context
(1904)
Significance of the Natural-Urban Distinction
(1904)
Extant Theories about Restorative Environments
(1905)
Directed Attention Restoration
(1905)
Antecedent Condition
(1905)
Restorative Process
(1905)
Environmental Context
(1905)
Empirical Tests
(1906)
Psychophysiological Stress Recovery
(1906)
Antecedent Condition
(1906)
Restorative Process
(1906)
Environmental Context
(1906)
Empirical Tests
(1906)
Conclusions and Prospects
(1907)
Prospects for Theory and Empirical Research
(1907)
Practical Prospects
(1907)
Acknowledgments
(1908)
See Also the Following Articles
(1908)
Further Reading
(1908)
Risk-Taking and Sexual Behavior, Pages 281-287, Vita C. Rabinowitz
(1910)
Glossary
(1910)
Defining Sexual Risk-Taking
(1910)
What Are Risky Sexual Behaviors?
(1912)
What Groups Are at High Risk for Teen Pregnancy and STIs?
(1912)
What Social, Interpersonal, and Personality Factors Are Associated with Risky Sexual Behaviors?
(1914)
Why Do People Engage in Risky Sex?
(1914)
How Can We Reduce the Incidence of Risky Sex?
(1915)
Practicing Abstinence and Monogamy
(1915)
Making a Commitment to Practice Safe Sex
(1915)
Sexual Communication Skills
(1915)
Avoiding Known High-Risk Behaviors
(1916)
Getting Regular Medical Checkups
(1916)
See Also the Following Articles
(1916)
Further Reading
(1916)
Robotherapy, Pages 289-293, Elena V. Libin and Alexander V. Libin
(1917)
Glossary
(1917)
Robotherapy: A New Era of Interactive, Nonpharmacological Interventions
(1917)
A Concept of Artificial Partners
(1918)
Robots as Therapeutic Tools: Early Experiments in the Field of Robotherapy
(1918)
Coping with Negative Behavioral and Emotional States via Technology: Behavioral Therapy
(1919)
Robots for Personal Assistance: Psychological and Physical Rehabilitation
(1919)
Person-Robot Communication as Complex Interactive System
(1920)
See Also the Following Articles
(1921)
Further Reading
(1921)
Robotic Psychology, Pages 295-298, Alexander V. Libin and Elena V. Libin
(1922)
Glossary
(1922)
Robotic Psychology: On the Coexistence of Humans and Robots
(1922)
Classification of Artificial Creatures in Robotic Psychology
(1923)
Psychology of Person-Robot Interactions
(1923)
Modeling the Human Mind
(1923)
Modeling Emotions
(1923)
Modeling Social Behavior
(1924)
Modeling Teaching Behavior
(1925)
Companionship between People and Robots
(1925)
See Also the Following Articles
(1925)
Further Reading
(1925)
Section - S
(1926)
Safety and Risks - Errors and Accidents in Different Occupations, Pages 299-307, Doris Fay and Patrick Tissington
(1926)
Glossary
(1926)
Introduction
(1927)
Errors: From the ‘‘Freudian Slip’’ to Taxonomies of Errors
(1927)
Strategies of Error Prevention
(1929)
Antecedents of Accidents: The Search for Individual Difference Variables
(1930)
From Engineering Control Solutions to Safety Behavior
(1930)
Recent Approaches to Safety: The Role of Management and Organizational Climate
(1931)
Safety-Enhancing Interventions
(1932)
Summary
(1933)
See Also the Following Articles
(1933)
Further Reading
(1933)
SchoolûCommunity Partnerships, Pages 309-317, Richard J. Cowan and Susan M. Swearer
(1935)
Glossary
(1935)
School-Community Partnerships Defined
(1936)
Partnerships Defined
(1936)
Characteristics of School-Community Partnerships
(1936)
Foci of School-Community Partnerships
(1936)
Domains of School-Community Partnerships
(1937)
Ecological Theory
(1937)
Specific Domains
(1937)
Family and Student Health
(1937)
Social and Mental Health Programs
(1938)
Violence Prevention
(1938)
Tolerance and Diversity
(1938)
Government Legislation/Regulation and Law Enforcement
(1939)
Community Volunteers and the Faith Community
(1939)
Business-Community Partnerships
(1940)
School/Academic Readiness and Educational Support
(1940)
Approaches to Fostering School-Community Partnerships
(1940)
Guiding Principles
(1940)
Roles and Responsibilities
(1940)
Strategies for Change
(1941)
Conclusion
(1942)
See Also the Following Articles
(1942)
Further Reading
(1942)
School Discipline and Behavior Management, Pages 319-326, George Bear
(1944)
Glossary
(1944)
Introduction
(1944)
Definitions and Components of School Discipline
(1945)
Developing Self-Discipline
(1945)
Using Discipline to Correct Misbehavior
(1946)
Preventing Misbehavior with Effective Classroom Management
(1947)
Remediating Serious Misbehavior
(1948)
See Also the Following Articles
(1950)
Further Reading
(1950)
School Environments, Pages 327-338, Rotraut Wald
(1952)
Glossary
(1952)
Introduction
(1953)
Empirical Evidence Regarding School Environments
(1953)
Special Influences in Schools and Classrooms
(1953)
Environmental Competence as an Educational Goal
(1958)
General Models Describing Environment-Behavior Relations in School Environments
(1958)
A First Taxonomy for the Study of Stress in Schools
(1958)
A Recent Framework for Conceptualizing Person-Environment Relations in Learning Settings
(1959)
Newer Methods for Assessing School Buildings and Criteria for Improvements in the School Environment
(1960)
Schools of the Future
(1960)
See Also the Following Articles
(1962)
Further Reading
(1962)
School Psychology, Overview, Pages 339-349, Howard M. Knoff
(1964)
Glossary
(1964)
Qualifying School Psychology as a Profession
(1965)
The Elements of an Effective School and the Contributions of Applied Psychology to Effectiveness
(1967)
What School Psychologists Do to Be Effective
(1970)
This Section of the Encyclopedia
(1971)
Conclusion
(1974)
See Also the Following Articles
(1974)
Further Reading
(1974)
School-to-Work Transition, Pages 351-354, David L. Blustein, Justin C. Perry and David B. DeWine
(1975)
Glossary
(1975)
Overview
(1975)
A Historical and Sociopolitical Perspective
(1976)
The Psychological Realm
(1977)
Conclusion
(1977)
See Also the Following Articles
(1978)
Further Reading
(1978)
School Violence Prevention, Pages 355-360, Jim Larson
(1979)
Glossary
(1979)
Introduction
(1979)
Definition of School Violence
(1979)
Historical Perspective
(1980)
Effects of School Violence
(1981)
Organizing Structures for School Violence Prevention
(1982)
An Integrated Approach to School Violence Prevention
(1982)
Universal Prevention Measures
(1983)
Selected Prevention Measures
(1983)
Indicated Prevention Measures
(1984)
Conclusion
(1984)
See Also the Following Articles
(1984)
Further Reading
(1984)
Self-Confidence in Athletes, Pages 361-368, Robin S. Vealey
(1985)
Glossary
(1985)
Definitions of Self-Confidence
(1985)
Importance of Self-Confidence to Athletes
(1986)
Influence of Self-Confidence on Thoughts and Emotions
(1986)
Influence of Self-Confidence on Behavior and Performance
(1987)
Sources of Self-Confidence in Athletes
(1987)
Self-Confidence within Sport Teams
(1989)
Measuring Self-Confidence in Athletes
(1989)
Strategies to Enhance Self-Confidence in Athletes
(1990)
Quality of Physical Training and Perceived Achievement
(1990)
Self-Regulation
(1990)
Social Climate
(1991)
See Also the Following Articles
(1991)
Further Reading
(1991)
Self-Control, Pages 369-373, Kathleen D. Vohs and Roy F. Baumeister
(1993)
Glossary
(1993)
Definitions and Conceptual Considerations
(1994)
Research Paradigms and Findings
(1994)
Self-Control Process Models
(1994)
Cybernetic Model
(1994)
Regulatory Resource Model
(1994)
Delay of Gratification Paradigm
(1994)
Domains of Self-Control
(1995)
Mental Control
(1995)
Emotion Control
(1995)
Behavioral Change
(1995)
Adherence to Moral Rules
(1995)
Individual Differences
(1995)
Summary
(1996)
See Also the Following Articles
(1997)
Further Reading
(1997)
Sexual Behavior, Pages 375-383, John D. Baldwin and Janice I. Baldwin
(1998)
Glossary
(1998)
Before Puberty
(1998)
Early Operant Learning
(1999)
Early Pavlovian Conditioning
(2000)
So What Is ‘‘Normal’’ or ‘‘Typical’’ During Childhood?
(2000)
Double Standards
(2000)
Early Observational Learning
(2001)
Puberty and Later
(2001)
Six Basic Sex Differences
(2001)
Double Standards
(2002)
Recent Trends
(2003)
Early Sexual Problems
(2003)
Common Male Problems
(2004)
Common Female Problems
(2004)
See Also the Following Articles
(2005)
Further Reading
(2006)
Sexual Behavior and Culture, Pages 385-391, Lise D. Martel, Skyler Hawk and Elaine Hatfield
(2007)
Glossary
(2007)
Sexual Permissiveness
(2007)
Permissive Societies
(2008)
Restrictive Societies
(2008)
Sexual Double Standard
(2008)
Sexual Expression
(2008)
Premarital Sexuality
(2008)
Agrarian and Hunter-Gatherer Societies
(2008)
Industrial Societies
(2008)
Extramarital Sexuality
(2009)
Agrarian and Hunter-Gatherer Societies
(2009)
Industrial Societies
(2009)
Homosexual Orientation and Behaviors
(2009)
Transgenderism
(2009)
Genital Modification Rituals
(2010)
Future Directions
(2010)
Contraception and Birth Control
(2010)
Developing Societies
(2010)
Industrial Societies
(2011)
Future Directions
(2011)
Sexuality and HIV/AIDS
(2011)
Condom Use
(2011)
Developing Societies
(2011)
Industrial Societies
(2012)
Gender Differences
(2012)
Developing Societies
(2012)
Industrial Societies
(2012)
Future Directions
(2012)
Conclusions
(2013)
See Also the Following Articles
(2013)
Further Reading
(2013)
Sexual Harassment, Pages 393-403, Janet Sigal
(2014)
Glossary
(2014)
Prominent Cases and Laws Against Sexual Harassment
(2014)
Prominent Cases
(2014)
U.S. Sexual Harassment Laws
(2015)
International Laws Against Sexual Harassment
(2015)
Theories and Models of Sexual Harassment
(2016)
Power Models
(2016)
Biological and Evolutionary Models
(2016)
Integrative Organizational Model
(2016)
Climate
(2017)
Gender Ratio in the Workplace
(2017)
Measures of Sexual Harassment
(2017)
Incidence of Sexual Harassment
(2017)
U.S. Incidence Data on Sexual Harassment of White Women
(2018)
Workplace Incidence Data
(2018)
Academic Sexual Harassment
(2018)
Specific Victim Groups
(2018)
Men as Victims of Sexual Harassment
(2018)
Women of Color
(2019)
Cross-Cultural Victims
(2019)
Characteristics of Male Harassers
(2020)
Outcomes and Responses
(2020)
Consequences of Sexual Harassment
(2020)
Emotional Reactions
(2021)
Physical Outcomes
(2021)
Alteration in Self-Perception
(2021)
Behavior Change
(2021)
Coping Responses
(2021)
Types of Coping Responses
(2021)
Prevention and Intervention
(2022)
Conclusion
(2023)
See Also the Following Articles
(2023)
Further Reading
(2024)
Social Comparison and Subjective Well-Being, Pages 405-409, Thomas Ashby Wills and Don Mendoza
(2025)
Glossary
(2025)
Social Comparison Theory
(2025)
Upward Comparison
(2026)
Downward Comparison
(2026)
Research on Principles of Social Comparison
(2026)
Research on Selected and Forced Comparisons in Field Settings
(2027)
Selected Comparisons
(2027)
Forced Comparisons
(2027)
Conclusions and Implications
(2028)
See Also the Following Articles
(2028)
Further Reading
(2029)
Social Loafing, Pages 411-419, Francisco Gil
(2030)
Glossary
(2030)
Is Social Loafing a Universal Effect with Disastrous Consequences for Group Performance?
(2031)
A Brief Historical Overview
(2031)
Theoretical Explanations
(2032)
Social Impact Theory
(2032)
Arousal Reduction
(2032)
Identification and Evaluation Potential
(2032)
Dispensability of Effort
(2033)
Self-Efficacy
(2033)
The Collective Effort Model
(2033)
Other Integrative Models: Instrumentality, Value, and Equity
(2033)
Implications of Social Loafing
(2034)
Prevention and Control of Social Loafing
(2035)
Task-Related Factors
(2035)
Group-Related Factors
(2035)
Factors Related to the Organization
(2035)
See Also the Following Articles
(2037)
Further Reading
(2037)
Social Networks, Pages 421-426, Mieneke W. H. Weenig
(2039)
Glossary
(2039)
Introduction
(2039)
Social Networks
(2040)
Major Research Findings
(2040)
Efficiency of Information Diffusion in Various Types of Networks
(2040)
Network Influences on the Diffusion of Innovations
(2041)
The Impact of Word-of-Mouth Communication
(2041)
Network Influences on the Diffusion of Information Versus Adoption Decisions
(2042)
Conclusions
(2043)
See Also the Following Articles
(2044)
Further Reading
(2044)
Social Skills Training, Pages 427-433, Stephen N. Elliott and Sylvia C. Lang
(2045)
Glossary
(2045)
Introduction
(2045)
Identification of Children in Need of Social Skills Training
(2046)
Social Skills Training Procedures
(2046)
Operant Intervention Procedures
(2047)
Social Learning Intervention Procedures
(2047)
Cognitive-Behavioral Intervention Procedures
(2048)
Effectiveness of Social Skills Interventions
(2048)
Selection of Interventions for Students with Different Problems
(2049)
Social Skills Acquisition Deficits
(2049)
Social Skills Acquisition Deficits with Interfering Problem Behaviors
(2049)
Social Skills Performance Deficits
(2050)
Social Skills Performance Deficits with Interfering Problem Behaviors
(2050)
Social Skills Strengths
(2050)
See Also the Following Articles
(2050)
Further Reading
(2050)
Social Support, Pages 435-441, Christine Schwarzer and Petra Buchwald
(2052)
Glossary
(2052)
Introduction
(2052)
Different Meanings of Social Support
(2053)
Social Support and Health
(2054)
Support Groups and Self-Help Groups
(2055)
Social Support in the Elderly
(2056)
Social Support and Gender
(2057)
Social Support and Social Skills
(2057)
See Also the Following Articles
(2058)
Further Reading
(2058)
Spatial Cognition, Pages 443-452, Reginald G. Golledge
(2059)
Glossary
(2059)
Introduction
(2060)
Development of Spatial Cognition: A Multidisciplinary Effort
(2061)
Spatial Cognition and Spatial Representation: Two Sides of the Same Coin
(2062)
Human Spatial Cognition
(2063)
Spatial Cognition in Animals
(2063)
The Neurobiology of Spatial Cognition
(2064)
Age-Related Differences in Spatial Cognition
(2065)
Sex-Related Differences in Spatial Cognition
(2065)
Spatial Cognition without the Benefit of Sight
(2066)
New Frontiers in Spatial Cognition Research
(2067)
See Also the Following Articles
(2068)
Further Reading
(2068)
Special Education, Pages 453-462, Stephen D. Truscott, Ruth A. W. Berry and Kelvin Lee
(2069)
Glossary
(2069)
Introduction
(2069)
History and Theoretical Foundations: From Institutionalization to Inclusion
(2070)
The Child Study Clinic Movement
(2070)
The Rise of the Medical Model and the ‘‘Within Child’’ Deficit Approach to Special Education
(2070)
Current Conceptualization: Behavioral, Ecological, and Sociocultural Models
(2071)
Current Special Education Practices
(2071)
Classification and Labeling
(2071)
Identification Processes
(2072)
Placement and the Continuum of Services
(2073)
Instructional Strategies/Effective Interventions
(2074)
Sensory Disabilities
(2074)
Physical and Neurological Disabilities
(2074)
Developmental Disabilities
(2075)
Early Intervention and Adult Transition Services
(2076)
Early Intervention
(2076)
Transition to Adult Services
(2076)
Medical and Technological Progress
(2076)
Multicultural and Racial Issues in Special Education
(2077)
International Perspectives
(2077)
See Also the Following Articles
(2078)
Further Reading
(2078)
Sport Psychology, Overview, Pages 463-477, Yuri L. Hanin and Natalia B. Stambulova
(2079)
Glossary
(2079)
Introduction
(2079)
Defining Sport Psychology
(2079)
Major Focus and Trends in Sport Psychology
(2080)
How Sport Psychologists Work
(2080)
Competitive Sport as a High Achievement Setting
(2081)
Sport and Competition
(2081)
Individual and Team Excellence
(2082)
High-Quality Practice
(2083)
Performance Enhancement
(2084)
Performance Related Experiences and Athletic Excellence
(2084)
Resources as Performance Enhancement Strategies
(2085)
Barriers to Athletic Excellence
(2086)
Athletic Excellence from a Developmental Perspective
(2087)
Athletic Career Demands, Coping Resources, and Barriers
(2087)
Athletes’ Successful Transitions and Crisis Transitions
(2088)
From Athletic to Personal Excellence
(2090)
Conclusion: Future Directions in Sport Psychology
(2091)
See Also the Following Articles
(2092)
Further Reading
(2092)
Stereotypes, Pages 479-484, David L. Hamilton and Sara A. Crump
(2094)
Glossary
(2094)
Introduction
(2094)
Conceptual Approaches to Understanding Stereotypes
(2095)
The Psychodynamic/Motivational Approach
(2095)
The Sociocultural Approach
(2095)
The Cognitive Approach
(2096)
Stereotype Activation
(2096)
Measuring Stereotypes
(2096)
When Do We Use Stereotypes?
(2097)
Consequences of Stereotyping
(2097)
Loss of Individual Information
(2097)
Behavioral Implications
(2098)
Self-Fulfilling Prophesy
(2098)
Stereotype Change
(2098)
Conclusion
(2099)
See Also the Following Articles
(2099)
Further Reading
(2099)
Stress, Pages 485-493, Charles J. Holahan, Jennifer D. Ragan and Rudolf H. Moos
(2100)
Glossary
(2100)
Introduction
(2100)
Categories of Life Stressors
(2101)
Life Change Events
(2101)
Major Life Crises and Traumas
(2101)
Chronic Stressors
(2101)
Health Effects
(2102)
Psychological Illness
(2102)
Physical Illness
(2102)
Stress Moderators
(2104)
Personal Diatheses
(2104)
Social Resources
(2105)
Adaptive Coping
(2105)
Conclusions
(2107)
See Also the Following Articles
(2107)
Further Reading
(2107)
Structure of Interests, Pages 495-499, Christy Hofsess and Terence J. G. Tracey
(2109)
Glossary
(2109)
Evolution of the Structure of Interests
(2109)
Holland’s Model of Vocational Types
(2110)
Alternative Approaches
(2110)
Generalizability of the Circular Structure
(2111)
Extensions of the Circular Model: Spherical Structure
(2111)
Relation of the RIASEC Types to Personality and Ability Measures
(2112)
Current Research
(2112)
See Also the Following Articles
(2113)
Further Reading
(2113)
Study Skills Instruction, Pages 501-505, Maribeth Gettinger
(2114)
Glossary
(2114)
Introduction
(2114)
Importance of Study Skills
(2115)
Three Dimensions of Studying
(2115)
Definition of Study Skills
(2115)
Study Skills in High- Versus Low-Achieving Students
(2115)
Rationale and Theoretical Framework for Study Skills Instruction
(2116)
Key Components of Study Skills Instruction
(2116)
Four Clusters of Study Skills
(2116)
Conclusions and Future Directions
(2117)
See Also the Following Articles
(2118)
Further Reading
(2118)
Subjective Culture, Pages 507-509, Harry C. Triandis
(2119)
Glossary
(2119)
Introduction
(2119)
Elements of Subject Culture
(2119)
Categories
(2119)
Categories Have Associations
(2120)
Beliefs
(2120)
Attitudes
(2120)
Norms
(2120)
Roles
(2121)
Tasks
(2121)
Values
(2121)
Conclusion
(2121)
See Also the Following Articles
(2121)
Further Reading
(2121)
Successful Athletic Careers, Pages 511-517, Paul Wylleman, Marc Theeboom and David Lavallee
(2122)
Glossary
(2122)
Nature and Conceptualization of the Athletic Career
(2123)
Theories and Models Related to Career Development of Athletes
(2123)
Career Intervention Programs for Athletes
(2126)
Conclusion
(2127)
See Also the Following Articles
(2128)
Further Reading
(2128)
Suicide Intervention in Schools, Pages 519-527, Scott Poland
(2129)
Glossary
(2129)
Prevalence of Youth Suicide
(2130)
Risk Factors for Youth Suicide
(2130)
Psychopathology
(2130)
Family Factors
(2130)
Biological Factors
(2131)
Environmental Factors
(2131)
Situational Crises
(2131)
Most Common Misperceptions about Youth Suicide
(2131)
Most Common Methods of Suicide
(2131)
Role of Schools in Suicide Prevention
(2132)
What if the Death Was a Suicide?
(2133)
Status of State and Individual Initiatives
(2134)
Suicide Prevention National Resources
(2136)
Summary
(2136)
See Also the Following Articles
(2137)
Further Reading
(2137)
System Safety, Pages 529-533, Bernhard Wilpert
(2138)
Glossary
(2138)
Large Complex Sociotechnical Systems
(2138)
Safety Management Strategies
(2140)
The Role of Psychology in System Safety
(2140)
Event Analysis and Event Reporting
(2141)
Training and Personnel Development
(2141)
Safety Culture
(2141)
See Also the Following Articles
(2142)
Further Reading
(2142)
Section - T
(2143)
Teaching Effectiveness, Pages 535-539, Jac J. W. Andrews
(2143)
Glossary
(2143)
Introduction
(2143)
A General View of Teaching
(2144)
Indicators of Effective Teaching
(2145)
Teacher Characteristics
(2145)
Situational-Contextual Factors
(2146)
Approach to Teaching and Student Performance
(2146)
Assumptions about Teaching Effectiveness
(2146)
Moving from Effective Teaching to Excellent Teaching
(2146)
Conclusion
(2147)
See Also the Following Articles
(2147)
Further Reading
(2147)
Territoriality, Pages 541-544, Robert Sommer
(2148)
Glossary
(2148)
The Psychological Concept of Territoriality
(2148)
Methods of Measurement
(2149)
Research Findings
(2150)
Applications
(2150)
Defensible Space
(2150)
Home Field Advantages
(2150)
Tracking Gang Activities
(2150)
Dispute Resolution
(2150)
Urban Planning
(2151)
See Also the Following Articles
(2151)
Further Reading
(2151)
Test Anxiety, Pages 545-556, Moshe Zeidner
(2152)
Glossary
(2152)
Basic and Conceptual Issues
(2152)
Overview
(2152)
Conceptions of Test Anxiety
(2153)
Facets and Typologies
(2154)
Measurement and Assessment of Test Anxiety
(2154)
Self-Report Instruments
(2154)
Alternative Assessment Procedures
(2155)
Practical Uses in Applied Settings
(2155)
Anxiety and Cognitive Performance
(2156)
Nature of Anxiety-Performance Relationship
(2156)
Mediating and Moderating Effects
(2156)
Mediating Effects
(2156)
Moderating Effects
(2157)
Coping, Interventions, and Clinical Considerations
(2157)
Coping
(2157)
Intervention Programs and Techniques
(2157)
Emotion-Focused Interventions
(2157)
Cognitive-Focused Interventions
(2161)
Skill-Focused Intervention
(2161)
Clinical Considerations
(2161)
Performing Careful Diagnosis of Client’s Problem
(2162)
Meeting Preconditions for Therapeutic Effectiveness
(2162)
Adjusting Treatment to the Needs of Particular Types of Test-Anxious Individuals
(2162)
Basing Treatment on the Broader Diagnostic Picture and Specific Goals of Therapy
(2162)
Consideration of Individual Differences
(2162)
Addressing Multiple Modalities and Loci of Therapeutic Impact
(2163)
Interaction among Components of Test Anxiety
(2163)
See Also the Following Articles
(2163)
Further Reading
(2163)
Traffic Safety Assessment, Pages 557-562, Kåre Rumar
(2164)
Glossary
(2164)
Introduction
(2164)
Road Safety Problems
(2165)
Exposure-Crash Risk-Injury Consequence
(2165)
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Problems
(2165)
The Role of Psychology in Road Safety Work
(2166)
The Cube Model
(2166)
Specific Psychological Problems
(2167)
Three Problem Levels
(2167)
Three Ways to Reduce Human Errors in Road Transport
(2167)
Conclusion
(2168)
See Also the Following Articles
(2168)
Further Reading
(2168)
Training, Cross-Cultural, Pages 563-568, David J. Dalsky and Dan Landis
(2170)
Glossary
(2170)
The Need for Cross-Cultural Training
(2171)
Needs Assessment
(2171)
Goal Identification
(2171)
Increasing Awareness of Cultural Differences
(2171)
Identifying and Improving Attitudes
(2171)
Introducing New Behaviors
(2172)
People Involved in Training Programs
(2172)
Trainers
(2172)
Trainees
(2172)
Others
(2172)
Structure of Training Programs
(2173)
Types of Training Techniques
(2173)
Didactic Techniques
(2173)
Experiential Techniques
(2173)
Time and Resource Availability
(2174)
Program Evaluation and Dimensions of Success
(2174)
Personal Adjustment
(2175)
Interpersonal and Professional Effectiveness
(2175)
Conclusion
(2175)
See Also the Following Articles
(2175)
Further Reading
(2175)
Traits, Pages 569-573, Jesús F. Salgado
(2176)
Glossary
(2176)
Traits as Human Characteristics of Individual Differences
(2176)
The Big Five Dimensions of Personality
(2177)
Criticism of the Trait Approaches and the Five-Factor Model of Personality
(2178)
Traits, Heritability, and Genetics
(2178)
The Big Five and Organizational Behavior
(2179)
See Also the Following Articles
(2180)
Further Reading
(2180)
Transfer of Learning, Pages 575-586, Robert E. Haskell
(2181)
Glossary
(2181)
Overview
(2181)
Conceptualizing Transfer
(2181)
Exemplifications
(2182)
Importance
(2183)
Cognitive Benefits of Transfer
(2183)
Conceptual Issues and Problems
(2183)
Terminological Issue
(2183)
The Question of Application Transfer
(2183)
The Question of Facilitated Transfer
(2183)
Outcome Research
(2184)
Categorical Distinctions
(2184)
Taxonomies of Transfer
(2184)
Positive and Negative Transfer
(2185)
Transfer of Training versus Transfer of Learning
(2185)
Models of Transfer
(2185)
Formal Discipline Model
(2186)
Behavioristic Models
(2186)
Identical Elements Model
(2186)
Stimulus Generalization Model
(2186)
Cognitive Models
(2186)
General Principle Model
(2186)
Information Processing Model
(2186)
The Metacognition Model
(2187)
Historical Overview
(2187)
Research Publications
(2187)
Conceptual and Instructional Shifts
(2187)
Transfer Thinking and Reasoning
(2188)
Single-Instance Reasoning and Analogical Transfer
(2188)
Legal Reasoning and Transfer
(2188)
Social Policy and Decision Making
(2188)
The Validity of Transfer Thinking
(2188)
Higher Order Transfer
(2189)
Transposition Transfer
(2189)
Progressive Transfer
(2189)
Transfer in Science
(2189)
Instructional Issues
(2189)
Counterintuitive Nature of Transfer
(2189)
Contexts and Cultures of Transfer
(2190)
Knowledge Base, Learning Strategies, Practice, Theory, and Exemplars
(2190)
Dispositional Characteristics and Aspects of Transfer
(2190)
Personality Structure and Development
(2191)
Disposition for Learning
(2191)
Prejudice
(2191)
Biological Origins of Transfer
(2191)
Evolutionary and Neurological
(2191)
Transfer and Intelligence
(2191)
Future Empirical Research and Theory
(2191)
See Also the Following Articles
(2192)
Further Reading
(2192)
Translation, Pages 587-596, Richard W. Brislin, Brent MacNab and David Bechtold
(2193)
Glossary
(2193)
Translation and Cross-Cultural Research
(2194)
Back-Translation
(2195)
Pretesting
(2196)
Emics and Etics
(2196)
Decentering
(2197)
Writing Translatable English
(2197)
Recent Enhancements of Translation Methodology in Research
(2198)
Questionnaire Development
(2198)
Translation Style
(2198)
The Use of Monolingual and Bilingual Translators and Subjects
(2199)
Quantitative Measures to Establish Equivalence
(2199)
Translation and Qualitative Studies
(2199)
New Challenges in Translation: The Pursuit of Equivalency in Higher Order Issues
(2200)
Nonverbal and Other Special Translation Issues
(2200)
Professional Jargon, Metaphors, and Idioms
(2200)
Future Directions of Translation and Translation Models
(2200)
The Impact of Globalization
(2200)
Technology and Translation
(2201)
Conclusion
(2201)
See Also the Following Articles
(2202)
Further Reading
(2202)
Transportation Systems, Overview, Pages 597-603, Barry H. Kantowitz and John M. Sullivan
(2203)
Glossary
(2203)
Introduction
(2203)
Operator Workload and Distraction
(2205)
Pilot Workload
(2205)
Driver Distraction
(2205)
Driver Vision
(2206)
Basic Visibility
(2207)
Conspicuity
(2207)
See Also the Following Articles
(2208)
Further Reading
(2208)
Travel Behavior and the Environment, Pages 605-609, Tommy Gärling
(2210)
Glossary
(2210)
Introduction
(2210)
Determinants of Travel
(2211)
Travel Demand
(2211)
Travel Choice
(2211)
Transportation Systems
(2211)
Properties
(2211)
Environmental Effects
(2212)
Measures for Reducing Private Car Use
(2212)
Classification
(2212)
Effects on Private Car Use
(2212)
Consequences of Reducing Private Car Use
(2213)
Car-Use Reduction and Information Technology
(2213)
See Also the Following Articles
(2214)
Further Reading
(2214)
Trust, Pages 611-620, Ana Cristina Costa
(2215)
Glossary
(2215)
Introduction
(2215)
Defining and Measuring Trust
(2216)
One-Dimensional Conceptualizations
(2216)
Multidimensional Conceptualizations
(2216)
Trust Measures
(2217)
Developing Trust
(2219)
Calculus-Based Trust
(2219)
Knowledge-Based Trust
(2219)
Identification-Based Trust
(2219)
The Benefits of Trust
(2219)
Transaction Costs Reduction
(2220)
Collaboration and Cooperation within and between Organizations
(2220)
Effects on Performance and Effectiveness
(2221)
Challenges and Dilemmas of Trust: Implications for Practice
(2221)
Fragility of Trust
(2221)
Limitations of Trust
(2222)
Implications for Practice
(2222)
Emerging Issues in Trust Research
(2223)
Summary
(2223)
See Also the Following Articles
(2224)
Further Reading
(2224)
Section - U
(2225)
Urban Environments and Human Behavior, Pages 621-631, Gabriel Moser
(2225)
Glossary
(2225)
Introduction
(2225)
The Urban Environment as a Stressful Milieu
(2226)
Urban Stressors
(2226)
Urban Living Conditions
(2226)
Specific Urban Behavior
(2227)
The Urban Environment as a Place of Living
(2228)
Place Identity and Attachment
(2228)
From Appropriation to Urban Identity
(2228)
The Rationale of Intervention in Urban Environments
(2229)
Levels of Analyses from the Dwelling to the City
(2229)
Socioenvironmental Engineering in Urban Environments
(2229)
The Sociophysical Interface
(2229)
Cooperation with Other Disciplines
(2230)
Public/Private Urban Environments: The Neighborhood
(2230)
People-Environment Congruity: Feeling at Home
(2230)
Control of Density in a Collective Habitat
(2231)
Management of Neighborhood Spaces
(2231)
Neighborhood Revitalization
(2231)
Environmental Annoyances
(2232)
Insecurity and the Feeling of Insecurity
(2232)
Urban Public Environments: The City
(2232)
Management of Public Urban Spaces
(2232)
Homogeneity and Legibility of the Urban Space
(2232)
Parks, Squares, and Nature in Urban Environments
(2233)
Management of Urban Diversity
(2233)
Toward Sustainability of Urban Environments
(2234)
Globalization and Sustainability
(2234)
Sustainable Cities
(2234)
See Also the Following Articles
(2235)
Further Reading
(2235)
Section - V
(2236)
Values and Culture, Pages 633-640, Peter B. Smith
(2236)
Glossary
(2236)
Introduction
(2236)
Levels of Analysis
(2237)
Individual-Level Dimensions of Values
(2238)
Correlates of Individual-Level Values
(2239)
Attitudes and Behavior
(2239)
Culture-Level Dimensions of Values
(2240)
Relations among Culture-Level Dimensions
(2241)
Studies Related to Culture-Level Value Dimensions
(2242)
Correlates of Culture-Level Values
(2242)
Conclusion
(2243)
See Also the Following Articles
(2243)
Further Reading
(2243)
Vocational Assessment in Schools, Pages 641-645, Edward M. Levinson, Angela B. Christy and Marcy R. Maus
(2244)
Glossary
(2244)
Introduction
(2244)
Importance
(2244)
Vocational/Career Development Theory
(2245)
Skills Needed for Employment
(2245)
Best Practices
(2246)
Systemic vs Individual Planning and Program Development
(2246)
Assessment Models
(2246)
Roles for Professionals
(2247)
Conclusion
(2247)
See Also the Following Articles
(2248)
Further Reading
(2248)
Vocational Interests, Pages 647-653, Fred H. Borgen
(2249)
Glossary
(2249)
History: Eighty Years of Interest Measurement
(2250)
Strong’s Empirical Success
(2250)
Holland’s Influential Theory
(2250)
Interest as a Construct often Poorly Defined
(2250)
Two Types of Scales
(2251)
Occupational Scales (Contrasted Groups)
(2251)
Homogeneous Content Scales
(2251)
Major Interest Inventories
(2252)
Campbell Interest and Skill Survey
(2252)
Kuder Occupational Interest Survey
(2252)
Self-Directed Search
(2252)
Strong Interest Inventory
(2252)
UNIACT Interest Inventory
(2252)
Quality and Use of Interest Measures
(2253)
Reliability
(2253)
Validity
(2253)
Counseling Utility
(2253)
Trends in Interest Measurement
(2253)
Conclusions
(2254)
See Also the Following Articles
(2254)
Further Reading
(2254)
Vocational Psychology, Overview, Pages 655-667, Mark L. Savickas
(2256)
Glossary
(2256)
Person-Environment Fit Model
(2256)
Vocational Personalities and Work Environments
(2257)
Vocational Interests
(2258)
Vocational Personality Types
(2258)
Consistency and Congruence
(2259)
Career Model
(2260)
Career Development
(2260)
Growth
(2260)
Exploration
(2261)
Crystallization
(2261)
Specification
(2261)
Actualization
(2263)
Establishment
(2263)
Stabilizing
(2264)
Consolidating
(2264)
Advancing
(2265)
Job Satisfaction
(2265)
Organizational Commitment
(2266)
Maintenance
(2266)
Disengagement
(2267)
See Also the Following Articles
(2268)
Further Reading
(2268)
Section - W
(2269)
Well-Being, Pages 669-676, Richard E. Lucas and Ed Diener
(2269)
Glossary
(2269)
The Hierarchical Structure of Subjective Well-Being
(2270)
Measurement Issues
(2271)
Self-Reports
(2271)
The Experience Sampling Method
(2271)
Problems with Self-Reports
(2271)
Observer Reports
(2272)
Problems with Observer Reports
(2272)
Physiological Indicators
(2272)
Nonphysiological Indicators
(2272)
Theoretical Issues
(2272)
Demographic and Situational Characteristics
(2272)
Adaptation Processes
(2273)
Traits and Personality Characteristics
(2273)
Nontrait Personality Characteristics
(2273)
Circumstances in Context
(2273)
Effects of High Well-Being
(2274)
Happiness and Productivity
(2274)
Positive Social Outcomes
(2274)
Effects of Happiness and Well-Being in the Cognitive Realm
(2275)
Summary
(2275)
See Also the Following Articles
(2275)
Further Reading
(2275)
Women's Health, Pages 677-682, Pilar Sanchez-Lopez
(2277)
Glossary
(2277)
Introduction
(2277)
Gender Bias in Health Research and Care
(2278)
False Assumptions of Equality Between the Sexes
(2278)
False Assumptions of Differences between the Sexes
(2278)
Reproduction-Oriented Limits
(2278)
Life Cycle: Differential Health Characteristics of Elderly Women
(2279)
Some Cultural Differences: Interactions among Sex/Gender, Social Class, Ethnic Groups, and Culture
(2280)
Maternal Mortality
(2280)
Violence Inflicted on Women
(2280)
Mental and Physical Health
(2280)
Women’s Health on the Internet
(2280)
See Also the Following Articles
(2282)
Further Reading
(2282)
Work Adjustment, Pages 683-685, Beryl Hesketh
(2283)
Glossary
(2283)
Structural Aspects of Work Adjustment
(2284)
Work Adjustment Process
(2284)
Work Adjustment Assessment
(2284)
Work Adjustment Counseling
(2285)
See Also the Following Articles
(2285)
Further Reading
(2285)
Work and Family, Relationship between, Pages 687-697, Jeffrey H. Greenhaus and Romila Singh
(2286)
Glossary
(2286)
Introduction
(2287)
Definitions of Work and Family
(2287)
Mechanisms Linking Work and Family
(2288)
The Effect of Work on Family Life
(2289)
Negative Effects of Work on Family Life
(2289)
Positive Effects of Work on Family Life
(2290)
The Effect of Family on Work Life
(2291)
Negative Effects of Family on Work Life
(2291)
Positive Effects of Family on Work Life
(2292)
Gender Differences in Work-Family Relationships
(2293)
Organizational Actions to Help Individuals Manage Work-Family Relationships
(2293)
Dependent Care Arrangements
(2294)
Flexible Work Arrangements
(2294)
Individual Actions to Manage Work-Family Relationships
(2295)
Conclusion
(2296)
See Also the Following Articles
(2296)
Further Reading
(2296)
Work Environments, Pages 699-707, Rotraut Walden
(2297)
Glossary
(2297)
Introduction
(2297)
Using Buildings for Increasing Productivity
(2298)
A Historical Perspective on Working Environments
(2298)
Some Recent Studies on Office Environments
(2300)
General Models Describing Environment-Behavior Relations in the Workplace
(2301)
Future Developments
(2304)
See Also the Following Articles
(2304)
Further Reading
(2304)
Work Motivation, Pages 709-713, Edwin A. Locke
(2306)
Glossary
(2306)
Needs
(2306)
Values
(2307)
Goals
(2308)
Self-Efficacy
(2308)
Emotions
(2308)
Job Satisfaction
(2308)
See Also the Following Articles
(2309)
Further Reading
(2309)
Work Role, Values Sought in the, Pages 715-717, Donald G. Zytowski
(2311)
Glossary
(2311)
General Values
(2311)
Work Values
(2311)
Conceptual Issues
(2312)
Definitions
(2312)
The Number of Work Values
(2312)
Underlying Structure
(2312)
Assessment Issues
(2312)
Validity
(2312)
Case Illustration
(2313)
Conclusion
(2313)
See Also the Following Articles
(2313)
Further Reading
(2313)
Work Safety, Pages 719-724, Dov Zohar
(2314)
Glossary
(2314)
Individual-Level Perspective
(2315)
Intervention Approaches
(2316)
Group-Level Perspective
(2317)
Intervention Approaches
(2317)
Organization-Level Perspective
(2318)
Intervention Approaches
(2318)
See Also the Following Articles
(2319)
Further Reading
(2319)
Work Teams, Pages 725-732, Steve W. J. Kozlowski and Bradford S. Bell
(2320)
Glossary
(2320)
Introduction
(2320)
Team Types and Task Characteristics
(2321)
Team Composition
(2321)
Team Development
(2323)
Team Processes and Performance
(2324)
Building and Managing Effective Teams
(2326)
Conclusion
(2326)
See Also the Following Articles
(2327)
Further Reading
(2327)
Writing, Teaching of, Pages 733-740, Virginia W. Berninger
(2328)
Glossary
(2328)
Historical Perspective
(2329)
Writing with and without Computers
(2329)
Related Processes and Developmental Stages
(2329)
Handwriting Development
(2330)
Spelling Development
(2330)
Composition Development
(2330)
Integration with Other Language Systems
(2330)
Teaching Writing across the Grades
(2330)
Kindergarten
(2330)
Primary School Grades
(2330)
Upper Elementary School Grades
(2332)
Middle and High School
(2333)
Individual Differences in Student Writers
(2333)
Role of Teacher Knowledge
(2333)
See Also the Following Articles
(2334)
Further Reading
(2334)
Section - Y
(2336)
Youth, Employment of, Pages 741-743, Fred W. Vondracek
(2336)
Glossary
(2336)
Youth Employment Defined
(2336)
The Context of Youth Employment
(2336)
Historical Context of Youth Employment
(2337)
Cultural and Socioeconomic Context of Youth Employment
(2337)
The Developmental Significance of Youth Employment
(2337)
Negative Effects of Youth Employment
(2337)
Positive Effects of Youth Employment
(2338)
Strategies for Facilitating Youth Employment
(2338)
See Also the Following Articles
(2338)
Further Reading
(2338)
